
Class 
Book. 



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Copyright li^. 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



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^it Eural Science ^nitfi 

Edited by L. H. Bailey 



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THE HORSE 



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THE HORSE 



BY 

ISAAC PHILLIPS ROBERTS 

Emeritus Professor of Agriculture, Late Dean and Director of the College of 

Agriculture of Coruell University; author of 'Fertility of the Land," 

"The Farmstead," "The Farmer's Business Handbook." 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1905 

All rights reserved 



c 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two O'JpiCu rItXAiivcti 

MAR 16 Jy05 
Oooyngni crxry 

/// v-v/ 

COPY B. 

' U>^ - -.M I I i 



Copyright, 1905 
By THE MACMILLAN COM PAIS' 



Set up and electrotyped Mareli, 1903 



J. Horace McFarland Company 
Harrisburo, Pa. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAQBS 

The Horse and His Master 1-20 

CHAPTER II 

Brief History of the Domesticated Horse 21-32 

Introduction of Improved Horses into England , v . . 26 
The -Horse in France 31 

CHAPTER III 
Horses of America 33-48 

CHAPTER IV 

Breeds, Subbreeds, Families, Varieties, Cross - 

Breeds and Grades 49-60 

CHAPTER V 

The Thoroughbred; the Trotter; the Pacer 61-85 

The Trotting Horse 70 

The Pacing Horse 78 

CHAPTER VI 
The American Saddler 86-94 

CHAPTER VII 

The Coach-Horse 95-109 

The Trotter as a Sire of Coaehers 103 

The French Coach 105 

CHAPTER VIII 
The Hackney 110-114 

(v) 



Vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IX PAGES 

The Hunter , 115-121 

Breeding-Hunters and Saddle-Horses ......... 116 

CHAPTER X 

Ponies , 122-138 

The Shetland Pony 125 

The Welsh Pony 130 

Exmoor, Dartmoor and New Forest Ponies 130 

Mustangs , 133 

The Indian Pony 135 

Creoles 135 

The Polo Pony 137 

CHAPTER XI 

Draft-Horses — Clydesdale, English Shire, Suffolk 

Punch 139-155 

English Shire 147 

Suffolk Punch 152 

CHAPTER XII 

French, Belgian and Flemish Draft-Horses 156-173 

French Draft 167 

Boulonnais 1(58 

Belgian Draft-Horse 168 

The Flemish Horse 171 

CHAPTER XIII 

Principles of Breeding c . . . . 174-201 

Food 187 

Climate 189 

Habit and Use 192 

Selection 193 

Relative Influence of Sire and Dam 197 

The Governing of Sex 198 

Atavism 201 



CONTENTS Vii 

CHAPTER XIV „,„„, 

PAGES 

Plan of Breeding 202-231 

Fall vs. Spring Colts 210 

Plan for Rearing Winter Colts 211 

Feeding the Brood-Mare and Foal 214 

Period of Gestation and Parturition ......... 219 

Suggestions for the Beginner , 222 

CHAPTER XV 
Judging Horses 232-266 

CHAPTER XVI 
Breeding Horses 267-274 

CHAPTER XVII 

Education and Care of Roadsters and Other Light 

Horses 275-296 

Education 275 

Feeding * • 281 

Foods . c 282 

Harness 284 

Driving . 287 

Watering 290 

Grooming 292 

CHAPTER XVIII 
"Hands" in Driving „ 297-302 

CHAPTER XIX 

Care of Draft- Horses and Farm -Horses c 303-315 

Watering 308 

Blankets 312 

Size and Weight of Horses „ 313 

Driving-, Farm- and Draft-Horses 314 



Viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XX 

•PAGES 

The Horse's Feet — Shoeing , . . . . 316-332 

Shoeing, to Improve Action 330 

CHAPTER XXI 

Stables, Sanitation and Paddocks 333-346 

Ventilation 336 

Manures 340 

Floors, Stalls and Mangers 342 

Paddocks 346 

CHAPTER XXn 
Line op Draft, Weight op Horses and Wagon Tires . 347-353 

APPENDIX I 
The Breeding in Canada of Horses for Army Use . . 354-359 

APPENDIX II 
Computing Rations for Farm Animals 360-382 

APPENDIX III 

Live -Stock Registry Associations, With the Names 

OP the Secretaries or Editors 383-389 

APPENDIX IV 
Number and Value of Horses 390-394 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Plowing ...... = o o ...... . 9 

Harvesting .. ..... ........ » 11 

The improved mustang 38 

A saddler at rest 45 

A superior pedigree » 63 

Alphea Czar. Pedigree ................... 55 

Genealogy of Moses , . . » » 57 

A thoroughbred 67 

Lou Dillon 72 

Cresceus . . . » 75 

Prince Alert . 81 

Dan Patch 83 

Montgomery Chief 92 

A good coacher 101 

Paladin, French coach 106 

Imported German coacher 108 

Imported Cadet, hackney Ill 

Champion hackney stallion 113 

Heavy-weight hunter 117 

Ontario 120 

A disgusted pony 123 

A pair of trick ponies 124 

Exile of Pittsford 126 

Bressay of Pittsford 127 

Champion Welsh pony mare 129 

Movement. Welsh pony gelding . . . . 131 

.Julius Caesar 132 

Gaited broncho 134 

Lord Stewart, Clydesdale 140 

A quartette of Clydesdale colts 142 

Brothwick. Clydesdale stallion 144 

(ix) 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGK 

Clydesdale mare 146 

Shire stallion 148 

Traitor. Shire stallion 150 

Tatton Bessie. Shire filly 151 

Suffolk Punch stallion 152 

Suffolk Punch mare 154 

Success. Percheron 157 

Calypso. Percheron stallion 160 

Paquerette. Percheron mare 163 

Deguardi. Percheron stallion 164 

Picador. Percheron stallion 166 

Brilliant Du Basquet. Belgian stallion 169 

Colonel De Dompiere. Belgian stallion 170 

German draft-horse 172 

A brood-mare 205 

A filiy 207 

A draft colt 209 

Cow-hocked legs 238 

A pointer , 238 

Reversion to original type 239 

A head showing bad breeding 240 

Ears badly set , 240 

Goldsmith Maid 241 

Photograph of a poor neck 242 

An all-embracing neck 243 

Teeth of young colt 247 

Teeth at four to six weeks of age 248 

Teeth at ten months 249 

A milk tooth 249 

Lower nippers at two years old 250 

Lower nippers at three years old 251 

Lower nippers at four years old 252 

Side view of nippers at four . . . . 253 

Lower nippers at five years 254 

Side view of teeth at five 255 

Lower nippers at six years of age 256 

Side view at six years of age 256 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI 

PAGE 

Lower nippers of a seven-year-old horse 257 

Side view of the nippers of a seven-year-old 258 

Lower nippers of an eight-year-old horse . 259 

Cross-section of an incisor tooth , 260 

Side view of incisor teeth at eight years old 261 

Lower incisor teeth of an old horse 263 

Side view of teeth of a very old horse 264 

Six views showing the wear of teeth 265 

Receiving their first lesson 277 

Ready for the second lesson 278 

The work half done 279 

Brains versus brute force 280 

A rein cruelly used 286 

Wonderful muscles displayed by a playful horse 315 

Foot of a draft-horse 327 

Front view of feet 328 

Foot of a roadster 329 

Gypsy Queen, a good saddler 332 

A swing-window 334 

An ideal arrangement of stable 336 

A straw chute and ventilator 337 

Better ways of saving manure 341 

A barn floor 343 

Energy efficiently applied 347 

Low line of draft 348 

High line of draft 349 

A hansom-cab 353 



THE HORSE 



CHAPTER I 

TEE HORSE AND HIS MASTER 

The American inherits from his European, and 
especially his English ancestor, a sincere love for the 
horse. This love has amounted to adoration in some 
cases. The family horse, if he outlived his master, 
inherited under the will a sufficient amount for lux- 
urious support during life and a costly interment and 
monument at death, the same as the children. Although 
oxen were used by the pioneers for the most laborious 
work, fine horses were imported and bred in consider- 
able numbers in the United States before 1776. Mary- 
land, Virginia and South Carolina had established race- 
courses prior to that time. As the forests disappeared 
before the woodman's axe and the stumps slowly 
decayed, horses were gradually substituted for oxen 
as ''work stock." As soon as settlements were made 
in the interior of the New England and middle states 
away from the natural water -courses, vast amounts of 
goods had to be "wagoned" from towns along the 
water-courses to the inland settlements. The rapid 
settlement of the middle states created a large demand 

(1) 



2 THE HORSE 

for stout, serviceable horses, and this demand stimulated 
the importation of well-bred horses and the breeding 
of what has been erroneously called in modern days 
"a general -purpose horse." 

The work -horses of America fall naturall}' into four 
general groups, each group overlapping the other. 
Although there are many subgroups, all of these are 
only connecting links between the four great groups 
and fall naturally into one, or sometimes, into two of 
them. 

(1) Heavy draft -horses, designed and adapted for 
moving heavy loads in cities and forests and at mines. 

(2) Medium draft, usually a mixture of the blood 
of the smaller individuals of the heavy draft and 
that of the larger animals of the third group; some- 
times the blood of the light draft predominates; 
sometimes that of the lighter and quicker horse which 
traces back in some lines to oriental or "warm-blooded" 
ancestors. In many cases, the sires are largely of 
oriental descent and the dams of mixed draft type or 
of unknown blood. This group is quite variable, as 
might be expected from the indiscriminate mixing 
of the warm- (oriental) and cold- (draft) blooded breeds. 
Perhaps nine -tenths of the farm -horses of America 
belong to this nondescript class. It furnishes nearly 
all of the cavalry- and artillery -horses for the army. 
Since the best specimens of this group, produced by 
individual enterprise, furnish ample material from which 
to select, no attempt has been made by the United 
States government, as in Europe, to encourage the 
breeding of horses suited to these purposes. Horses 



THE FOUR GROUPS OF HORSES 3 

of this group are also found in considerable numbers 
in the city. They are used at light draft, delivery and 
street -car work, and at any other light work where a 
cheap horse, having more speed than the draft -horse 
and more weight tha?n the roadster, can be used to 
advantage. 

(3) The third group is designed for drawing light 
loads at a rapid pace. In America the term "roadster"' 
has come to be applied in a generic way to all of this 
class, although some members of it are used exclusively 
in competitive speed contests. 

(4) The fourth class comprises several breeds and 
mixed - blood varieties of small horses known as 
"ponies." Some trace their ancestry to the north of 
Great Britain; others, first to southern and western 
United States and thence back to Spain. 

The American, having all of these varied classes, 
groups and subgroups from which to select, and 
having opportunity to put the horse to many uses, both 
profitable and pleasurable; living in a country of 
magnificent distances, traveling over roads that were 
once bridle-paths and that are yet far from good; 
having easy and constant communication with Great 
Britain, and therefore many improved varieties of horses 
to draw upon for foundation stock, has an inevitable 
and an inherited love for the horse. It is no wonder, 
then, that the American boy has always felt that he 
was robbed of his inalienable rights unless he owned a 
colt which was under his personal care and tutelage 
and which was "truly" his when it had grown to 
be a horse. 



4 THE HORSE 

Hay and grain have always been so abundant in 
America that every farmer could afford to keep at least 
one horse, however small his holding. The business of 
all except the older great cities is still largely carried 
on by men who were reared on the farm and who love 
the horse. This fact, coupled with cheap maintenance 
and abundant traffic, has filled the cities as well as 
the country districts with horses. Unfortunately, until 
the twelfth Census was taken, we have had no means 
of knowing the exact number. 

When the pioneers reached the vast open grass- 
covered plains of the west and southwest, they might 
have expressed their surprise and wonder in the words 
of Byron: 

"A thousand horse, the wild, the free, 
Like waves that follow o'er the sea. 
A thousand horse, and none to ride; 

O! where are they the reins to guide?" 

They did not stop to quote "Mazeppa," however, but 
proceeded to catch and tame the horse and to furnish 
him with a rider, who learned to keep a firm seat even 
though the horse frequently stood alternately on one 
end and then on the other. Thus American boys and 
men have become expert horsemen by reason of unique 
conditions not found in countries long settled. The 
word "expert" is not full and comprehensive enough, 
for they love to own, rear, educate and drive the horse. 
The American is usually a kind, good caretaker, supply- 
ing the wants of his horse before his own are satisfied. 
Like the Arab, of all his possessions, he is proudest of 
his colt; and so the large number of good horses in 



EARLY INTEREST IN HORSES 5 

our new, and, as yet, only partly developed country can 
be easily accounted for. 

It is not strange, therefore, that the people of the 
United States, both urban and suburban, have always 
taken an intelligent interest in the horse. They have 
not only taken pains to improve the animals of mixed 
blood by selection and by improving their food and 
environment, but, even as early as the colonial period, 
horses of superior qualities, horses of oriental lineage 
and of great beauty, were imported at large cost. After 
the Revolution, as soon as the country began to recover 
from its long struggle for independence, the importa- 
tion of horses was resumed. 

The true draft-horse attracted comparatively little 
attention in America until permanent settlements had 
spread over the middle west. When the railways reached 
the w^estern prairies, these vast fertile areas became 
valuable, since rapid and cheap communication with the 
east furnished facilities for reaching a steady and profit- 
able market along these railways. Cities were soon 
built where, but a few years before, the bison roamed 
undisturbed except by his compeer, the American 
Indian. The opening of the prairies to the peaceful 
pursuits of agriculture, and the growing cities, created 
a demand for larger numbers of heavier horses than 
had hitherto been required. It will readily be seen how 
necessary the horse has been to the development of 
American agriculture, when it is stated that in 1890 
the total number of horses on farms and ranges, not 
including 7,461 on Indian reservations and 2,314,785 
mules and asses which take the place of horses as 



6 TH£} HORSE 

work stock in the southern states, was 15,258,783. 
The population of the country, exclusive of Alaska and 
Island possessions, was 62,622,250. This shows that 
there were approximately twenty -five horses, not count- 
ing those in cities, for every one hundred inhabitants of 
the entire countrj^ If the mules and asses, and horses 
on Indian reservations be included, there would be 
twenty-eight of these wore animals for every one hun- 
dred inhabitants. The horses kept in the cities have 
never been enumerated in the Census until 1900; if they 
had been, the total showing above would be largely in- 
creased. If the people, as well as the horses of the cities, 
be excluded from the computation, it is seen that, in 
1900, for every three persons living on farms at least one 
horse was maintained. These facts emphasize as nothing 
else can the usefulness of the horse in rural pursuits and 
the great love of the Americans for one of the most 
useful, charming and pleasure -giving domestic animals. 
The horses of Great Britain numbered, in 1899, 
1,517,160. The population, the same year, was 40,559,- 
954. This shows that but one horse was maintained 
for every twenty-six, or four horses for every one 
hundred inhabitants. However, the horses in the cities, 
as well as the city population, are included in these 
computations and therefore are not strictly comparable 
with those of the United States. It is estimated by 
good authority that in 1900, in the city of London, 
with a population of 4,504,766, there are 600,000 horses 
in daily use. It is evident that neither steam nor elec- 
tricitj^ is likely entirelj^ to supplant the horse, either 
in city or country, in the near future. 



STATISTICS IN VABIOUS COUNTRIES 7 

In 1892, the population of France was 88,333,000. 
The number and classification of horses for the same 
year was as follows: 

Horses Employed in Agriculture — 

Geldings and stallions 1,080,000 

Mares 1,019,000 

Stallions for breeding 8,886 

Mares for breeding 178,237 

Colts, one to three years old .... 328,099 

Colts, less than one j^ear 248,051 

2,862,273 

Horses Employed in Cities — 

Paris 90,127 

In other cities about 660,000 

750,127 

Army horses 143,000 

Government studs — stallions .... 2,700 

145,700 

Total 3,758,100 

This gfives one horse for every ten, or ten to every 
one hundred inhabitants. It may be said, however, that 
the exact number of horses maintained in cities cannot 
be secured but the estimate given above is believed 
to be very nearly correct. 

The population of the German empire, in 1895, was 
52,279,901; the number of horses (understood to in- 
clude those in the cities) was 4,038,485, or one horse 
for thirteen, or seven and seven -tenths horses to every 
one hundred inhabitants. 

These three great European countries^ had a popula- 
tion, at the dates mentioned, of 131,172,855 and 9,313,- 
745 horses, or one horse to every fourteen inhabitants; 

1 The figures for Great Britain, Germany, France and Holland were 
secured through the kindness of the American Consuls. 



8 THE HOUSE 

while the United States, in 1890, had a population, of 
62,622,250 and the number of horses on the farnrs for 
the same year was 15,258,783; or, roundly, one horse 
for every four inhabitants. The rural population at that 
time, including those who lived in the outskirts of the 
villages and cities and who kept horses in part for 
pleasure, as well as for cultivating land, was estimated 
at one -half of the total population. If this estimate, 
which is believed to be nearer correct than the former 
one, is taken as a basis for computation, it appears 
that in the rural districts of the United States there 
are half as many horses as inhabitants, or one horse 
for every two inhabitants; while in The Netherlands 
with its many canals, in 1897, but one horse was main- 
tained for ever}' eighteen inhabitants. Fortunately, 
the horses in the cities have been enumerated in the 
Census of 1900. The total number in the United 
States is 21,216,888; 866,771 of which are in cities 
of over 25,000 inhabitants, 18,280,007 on farms and 
ranges, and 2,070,110 not on farms or ranges. The total 
population in 1900 was 76,303,387, and indicates that 
one horse was maintained for every 3.6 inhabitants. 

It is evident that in America the farmers have 
learned to substitute brute for human energy. Agricul- 
tural teachers and inventors have taught the farmer 
that human muscle, in the United States at least, is 
the dearest material from which to secure energy. The 
value of a day's labor for a horse may be put down 
at fifty cents, that of a man at one dollar. A horse 
properly directed is equal in productive energy to ten 
men. Just here lies the secret of American agriculture. 



HOBSE LABOR VERSUS HUMAN LABOR 



9 



A horse, intelligeutly handled, may be made to cheapen 
farm operations twenty fold over the old hand methods. 
Human muscle, however cheap, can never successfully 
compete in agriculture with improved implements, 





■|^P^J^BWIr/.jdL V H^^H[ 


-*~- .1^ ^-^-^•^^j;z 









Fig. 1. Plowing: Conservation of human energy and concentration of 

cheap energy 

operated by well bred -horses adapted to their w^ork 
and directed by intelligent workmen. The American 
farmer is not usually content to direct the energies 
of but one horse at a time. He harnesses two, three, 
four, and even six, to a single implement of tillage. In 



10 THE HORSE 

the great wheat distr-icts of the northwest, where the 
fields are often a mile long and where two plows are 
mounted on wheels and drawn by five horses (Fig. 1), 
and where ten rounds, or twenty miles, that is, forty 
miles of a single furrow, sixteen inches wide, is plowed 
in a daj^ a single workman accomplishes, in the pul- 
verization and preparation of the six and a half acres, 
more than a hundred hand laborers could do in a 
day of the severest toil. Or a still more striking illus- 
tration of the economy of horse over man power may 
be given. In many of the great wheat -fields of Cali- 
fornia, from twenty -two to thirty -two horses are 
attached to a combined machine (Fig. 2) which cuts, 
threshes, cleans and sacks from one thousand to two 
thousand bushels of wheat per day. One man drives 
the horses and two or three others tend the machine 
and sew up the sacks of grain, the four spending less 
muscular energy than was formerly required merely to 
cut by hand a single acre. 

Nearly as great economy of human muscle is seen 
in the large cities, by the substitution of horses for 
men in the transportation of heavy merchandise, for 
short distances. By reason of crowded streets and cost 
of maintenance, only one or two animals are usually 
harnessed 'to a vehicle. Although only a few horses are 
brought together in this case to assist a single man, 
the American has seen to it that large, stout horses 
are provided, two of which are able to move a load 
of from four to ten tons over paved streets, — a load 
equal to that carried by a freight car in the early days 
of steam railways. 



12 THE HOUSE 

In 1890 there were, in round numbers, fifteen million 
horses and two million mules on farms. At least 'one- 
half of them were suitable to perform regular agricul- 
tural labor and were capable of doing work equal to 
eighty-five million hand laborers. What a vast addi- 
tion to the productive power is here secured by the 
intelligent utilization of the horse; and what econ- 
omy in using brute energy, which is only from one- 
tenth to one -twentieth as expensive as human muscular 
energy ! 

If, then, the horse is such an economic factor 
in American production and progress, it behooves the 
American farmer to acquaint himself with the history 
of this useful and pleasure-giving animal, that not 
only good horses may be propagated, but that such 
selection of breeding stock may be made and such scien- 
tific coupling, feeding and training be practiced as 
will secure not only the best horses but, that which 
is of quite as much importance, those which shall be 
best adapted to the work for which they are intended. 
It is evidently foolish to rear a horse which will increase 
a man's productive power only five times, when a more 
intelligent effort might have produced one which would 
increase it ten times. 

So far, the horse has been spoken of as an animal 
which may be used to replace and alleviate human toil, 
to increase the efficiency of human effort and to give 
pleasure. But many horses in the community are 
beneficial in various other ways. They have a powerful 
influence in training the hand, and in developing both 
intellect and judgment. In ancient times, the ox and 



THJi] SHARPENED STICK * 13 

the ass were used to lighten toil, but horses seldom. At 
the present time, most half-civilized nations prefer the 
"senseless" ox or the stubborn, thick-skinned ass to 
the intelligent, spirited horse, which requires a high 
degree of skill, and judgment, if his energy is to be 
directed along the most economical and pleasure -giving 
lines. The well-bred horse is nearly worthless unless 
there is a trained mind to direct and control him. In 
traveling through foreign countries, one is minded of 
the superior horsemanship of the American farm -boy 
over that of the farmers' sons of civilized as well as 
half -civilized countries, boys of Great Britain and her 
colonies excepted. It is sometimes said that the Ameri 
can mechanic has produced farm implements whereby 
the horse can be put to more effective uses. Due credit 
should be given to the mechanic, but the owners of 
horses invented nearly all the labor-saving horse imple- 
ments. When, by reason of increased wants and the 
complexities of advancing civilized life, division of 
labor was forced upon us, the mechanic took such 
implements as were at hand and improved them. 
J. Stanton Gould ^ graphically describes the inventor of 
the first plow in the following words: "While working 
the land with his sharpened stick, with his mind intent 
upon some mode of ameliorating his condition, he 
(the farmer) sees the bulls and cows grazing on the 
hillsides around him; they are stronger than he, and 
he desires to subjugate their strength to his service. 
Seeing a forked stick in his path, a bright thought 
dawns upon his mind: he will tie the long end of a 

1 Utica Plow Trial, 1867. 



14 • THE HOUSE 

stick to the horns of a bull, while the short eud will 
run into the ground and stir it much faster than he 
could do it with a sharpened stick, and with much less 
labor to himself. He tries the experiment, and cries, 
'Eureka!' or some barbarous equivalent for that Greek 
word. The germ of the plow is at length invented!" 

Not only was the crude wooden plow of our ancestors 
invented by men who had idle horses, which they saw 
could be far more efficient in tilling the land than men, 
but the cast plow as well. In like manner, the wagon, 
the sleigh, the harrow, the corn -harvester, the wooden 
hay-rake, hay-unloaders and manj^ other similar imple- 
ments were devised. So it will be seen that the owners 
of horses situated in a new, sparsely populated countrj*, 
far removed from machine and implement factories, 
thought out many devices by which the strength of the 
horse could be substituted for human labor. It will 
be seen along how many lines the intellect has been 
stimulated by this effort to utilize the horse. To breed, 
rear and train for various uses and to direct the energy 
of restless, courageous animals, requires no little intel- 
ligence and skill. I have yet to find a successful horse- 
man who is not above the average intelligence of his 
associates in the same station of life. 

In the ancient scripture, the Lord, to convince Job 
of his ignorance and weakness, used the strength, 
courage and fierceness of the horse to emphasize the 
argument: — "Hast thou given the horse strength? Hast 
thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make 
him afraid as a grasshopper? The glory of his nostrils 
is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth 



FACTORS IN INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 15 

in strength. ... He mocketh at fear, and is not 
affrighted." . . . "He swalloweth the ground with 
fierceness and rage." 

By reason of long domestication, intelligent care 
and training, the horse has become more tractable and 
intelligent than he was in the time of Job. While 
neither men nor horses can inherit an education, they 
may inherit what is better, — the power to acquire it 
easily and rapidly. The colt, nevertheless, still retains 
enough courage, strength and fierceness to furnish 
opportunity for the use of the highest skill and courage 
in transforming him into the safe, well-trained, efficient 
horse. The Honorable George Geddes once said that 
the use of improved farm implements had been such a 
potent factor in stimulating thought and in giving 
dexterity to the hand of farm-boys, that, if they had 
been of no other economic benefit, the education secured 
through their use would be full compensation for 
their cost. 

The training of the American boy through the uni- 
versal presence of the horse and the skill required in 
his use in operating farm implements and in minister- 
ing to pleasure may not be a full equivalent for the 
cost and maintenance of horses, but it is certain that 
these have been most potent factors in the intellectual 
developmBnt and manual training of the rural popula- 
tions. 

"The horse, by nature, is far from being an intel- 
ligent animal. I know this is contrary to the general 
conceded belief as to the ability of horses to receive 
education. I use the word 'education^ in the general 



16 THE HORSE 

sense, meaning the power to reason from acquired 
knowledge. The horse is one of the least responsive 
animals, so far as mental training is concerned. 
Ordinarily, a horse is required to know but little, and 
this little is drilled into him, and his obedience is the 
result of habit rather than of intelligent comprehen- 
sion. 

"For common farm use, the training or 'breaking' 
requires very little time and pains. Once ' broken ' he 
then is ready to be trained. By the most painstaking 
effort, long continued, he may acquire certain habits 
which may remain with him, and usually do, through 
life, but such habits are in no way an indication of 
high intelligence. The horse used on a milk-wagon, for 
instance, which makes frequent stops, for ever after 
retains this habit. It often requires weeks and months 
to develop a 'trick' horse. 

"Some writers on the subject declare that no reliance 
can be placed on the effect of sounds when educating 
the horse. However, any sound which has been long 
used to indicate a particular performance, in time 
enforces obedience to such sound and establishes a 
habit, as, for instance, the bugle blast of cavalry or 
the fire alarm of an engine-house. 

"The marvelous feats of some trained horses are 
simply enforced habits, and are usualh' guided hy some 
motion of the attendant rather than by sound. So 
markedly is this the case, that a good horse-trainer 
gives commands in a single word, as a command to 
stop, to start, to rear or to lie down. The horse cannot 
learn to receive two commands at the same time. 



THJi INTELLIGENCE OF THE MAN 17 

"The surface nerves, rather than sound of the human 
voice, are used almost exclusively for training horses. 
The slightest pressure or touch may be the command. 
The ranch -horse obeys a touch of the rider's leg far 
more certainlj^ and quickly than he does any vocal 
command. In fact, so true is this, that the expert horse- 
man seldom speaks to his animal, but restrains or cheers 
or guides him simply by utilizing the surface nerves 
of his body." ^ 

It is the intelligence of the man, after all, rather 
than the intelligence of the horse, which determines use 
and performance. The intelligence of the horse, what- 
ever it may be, his response to the driver's wishes, 
his courage and endurance, depend somewhat, perhaps 
largely, upon the blood of his ancestors — inheritance — 
breed. However, characteristics and disposition are 
greatly modified by climatic conditions. The very air 
he breathes, the temperature in which he lives, the ele- 
vation above sea-level and the humidity of the climate, 
are all important factors in modifying both the physical 
and mental peculiarities not only of breeds but of indi- 
viduals of a breed as well. The Clydesdale horse brought 
from his native country to the dry district bordering 
on the Rocky mountains loses some of the abundant 
long fetlock hair — "feather"; and his offspring reared 
in this dry climate loses still more of this peculiar and 
apparently useless appendage. The "wind" of the low- 
land horse and his sluggishness are improved, in time, 
when he is taken to mountainous districts. The horses 
of the low coast districts of North Carolina and those 

^Author of this quotation not known. 



18 THE HORSE 

of the mountains are much unlike in endurance and 
temperament. Both are largely of the same warm .blood 
on their sire's side and of mixed and warm-blooded 
dams. It might be possible to place Clydesdale horses 
on the Shetland Islands and preserve their size and 
general characteristics by providing suitable and abun- 
dant food and as warm and comfortable quarters as 
are found in the valley of the Clyde. However, it 
would appear to be wiser and more economical to choose 
breeds of horses which have already become adapted to 
climate, use and environment, rather than to change 
food, environment and use to suit the breed. 

Those who have had much experience with horses 
are often greatly disappointed in them at times. Some- 
times they appear to learn rapidly, and then again they 
seem to lose all their education and become semi- 
maniacs. It is no uncommon thing to drive a horse 
for years, trust him implicitly, assert that he would 
not run away even if the harness broke and the wagon 
ran against him, and then to find that the horse has 
suddenly forgotten all his education and will lose his 
self-possession and run away even if so much as a 
leaf flutters down before him. A splendid driving mare 
which had been used by the family with great pleasure 
for years, without any provocation whatever, on a level 
road, began kicking and did not cease until she had 
freed herself from the carriage and had seriously and 
permanently injured the two occupants. One old horse 
which had been used by two generations of children to 
transport them to school over a quiet road went crazy 
(perhaps this is too strong a term), ran away and 



THE EDUCATION OF THE HORSE 19 

caused great damage because a rooster flapped his wings 
and crowed beside the road. 

Without denying the fact that some horses have 
shown great sense, have apparently learned to reason 
and appear to be always trustworthy, yet it often 
happens that a horse trusted because of his previous 
good behavior seems all of a sudden to become a fool. 
It is wiser, therefore, never to put oneself in jeopardy 
by too implicitly trusting in an animal much stronger 
than oneself, and one which too often is lacking in 
good sense. The pistol that is not loaded is always the 
one that goes off and kills somebody. 



CHAPTER II 

BRIEF HISTORY OF TEE DOMESTICATED HORSE 

Without doubt the ass, an inferior member of the 
equine family, was domesticated long before the horse. 
It is believed that the horse was unknown to the 
Israelites until they sojourned in Egypt, and presum- 
ably up to that time it had not been domesticated. It 
is impossible to determine the place of its origin. 
It is enough to say that the horse is first spoken of as a 
domesticated animal during the famine in Egypt, when 
it is stated that Joseph exchanged corn for horses 
about 1712 B. C. In 1898 B. C, Abimelech gave 
many and valuable presents to Abraham, such as 
oxen, sheep, man-servants and maid-servants, she- 
asses and he -asses, but no mention is made of horses, 
and, as horses became the most common and valued 
presents during the sixteenth century B. C, it is be- 
lieved that the horse had not yet been brought under 
the dominion of man anterior to the beginning of 
the eighteenth century B. C. As soon as they were 
domesticated they became common in the most civil- 
ized countries, such as Media and Persia. Assyria at 
an early date employed large numbers of horses in 
the cavalry division of the army. Some were also 
harnessed to war -chariots. That branch of the service 
which required horses was usually more effective than 
the infantry, as compared with modern times. 

(21) 



22 TEE HOBSE 

It is probable tbat the horse, when first domesti- 
cated, was not used to any great extent as a burden- 
bearer or for tilling the soil. His chief uses in ancient 
times appear to have been for display and war. 
Horse -racing early became popular. From the stand- 
point of the uses to which horses were largely put, it 
appears that long before the Christian era the "points" 
of the war-horse had been carefully studied and were 
well understood. I quote Xenophon's description of a 
good horse of his time,^ with instructions to the pur- 
chaser. Note how carefully each point is set forth and 
how accurate the reasoning when applied to the 
brave, broad -breasted war-horse. 

He says, "We will write how one may be the least 
deceived in the purchase of horses. It is evident, 
then, that of the unbroken colt one must judge by 
the bodily construction; since, if he have never been 
backed, he will afford no very clear evidence of his 
spirit. Of his body, then, we say that it is necessary 
to first examine the feet; for, as in a house, it mat- 
ters not how fine may be the superstructure, if there 
be no sufficient foundations, so in a war-horse there 
is no utility, no, not if he have all the other points 
perfect, but be badly footed. But in examining the 
feet it is befitting first to look to the horny portion 
of the hoofs, for those horses which have the hoof 
thick are far superior in their feet to those which 
have it thin. Nor will it be well if one fail, next, 
to observe whether the hoofs be upright, both before 
and behind, or low and flat to the ground; for high 

1 Xenophon, born 434 B. C. 



XENOPHOX'S WAB HORSE 23 

hoofs keep the frog at a distance from the earth, while 
the flat hoofs tread with equal pressure on the soft 
and hard parts of the foot, as is the case with bandy- 
legged men. And Simon justly observes that well- 
footed horses can be known by the sound of their 
tramp, for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal, when 
it strikes the solid earth. But, having begun from 
below, let us ascend to the other parts of the body. 
"It is needful, then, that the parts above the hoofs 
and below the fetlocks — the pasterns — be not too erect, 
like those of the goat; for legs of this kind, being stiff 
and inflexible, are apt to jar the rider, and are more 
liable to inflammation. The bones must not, however, 
be too low and spring}-, for in that case the fetlocks 
are liable to be abraded and wounded, if the horse 
be galloped over clods or stones. The bones of the 
shanks should be thick, for these are the columns which 
support the body; but they should not have the veins 
and flesh thick, likewise. For, if they have, when the 
horse shall be galloped in difficult ground they will 
necessarily be filled with blood, and will become vari- 
cose, so that the shanks will be thickened, and the 
skin be distended and relax from the bone; and, when 
this is the case, it often follows, that the back sinew 
gives way and renders the horse lame. But if the 
horse, when in action, bends his knees flexibly at a 
walk, you may judge that he will have his legs flexible 
when in full career; for all horses, as they increase in 
years, increase in the flexibility of the knee. And 
flexible goers are esteemed highly, and with justice; 
for such horses are much less liable to blunder or to 



24 ' TffU HOBSE 

stumble than those which have rigid, unbending joints. 
But if the arms, below the shoulder blades, be thick 
and muscular, they appear stronger and handsomer, as 
is the case also with a man. The breast also should 
be broad, as well for beauty as for strength, and 
because it causes a handsomer action of the forelegs, 
which do not then interfere, but are carried wide apart. ^ 
"And, again, the neck ought not to be set on, like 
that of a boar, horizontally from the chest; but, like that 
of a game cock, should be upright towards the crest, 
and slack to.wards the flexure; and the head being long, 
should have: a small and narrow jawbone, so that the 
neck shall Ibe in front of the rider and that the eye 
shall look .down at what is before the feet. A horse 
thus made \yill be the least likely to run violently away, 
even if he c be very high-spirited, for horses do net 
attempt to_run away by bringing in, but by thrusting 
out, their -heads and necks. It is also very necessary 
to observe, whether the mouth be fine or hard on both 
sides, or on one or the other. For horses which have 
not both j^aws equall}^ sensitive are likely to be hard- 
mouthed on one side or the other. And it is better 
that a horse should have prominent than hollow eyes, 
for such:,/a one will see to a greater distance. And 
widely open nostrils are far better for respiration than 
narrow, and they give the horse a fiercer aspect; for 
when one stallion is enraged against another, or if he 
become angry while ridden, he expands his nostrils to 
their full width. And the loftier the crest, and the 
smaller the ears, the more horse -like and handsome is 

^ Evidently this does not describe a trotter. 



XENOPHON'S IDEA OF CORRECT FORM 25 

the head rendered; while loftj^ withers give the rider a 
surer seat and produce a firmer adhesion between the 
body and shoulders. A double loin is also softer to 
sit upon, and pleasanter to look upon, than if it be 
single; and a deep side, rounded toward the belly, 
renders the horse easier to sit, and stronger, and more 
easy to be kept in condition; and the shorter and 
broader the loin, the more easily will the horse raise 
his fore -quarters, and collect his hind -quarters under 
him, in going, These points, moreover, cause the belly 
to appear the smaller; which, if it be large, at once 
injures the appearance of the animal and renders him 
weaker, and less manageable. The quarters should be 
broad and fleshly, in order to correspond with the sides 
and chest, and, should they be entirely firm and solid, 
they will be lighter in the gallop, and the horse would 
be the speedier. But if he should have his buttocks 
separated under the tail by a broad line, he will bring 
his hind legs under him, with a wider space between 
them; and so doing he will have a prouder and stronger 
gait and action, and will, in all respects, be the better 
on them. A proof of which is to be had in men, who, 
when they desire to raise anything from the ground, at- 
tempt it by straddling their legs, not by bringing them 
close together. Stallions should not have the tetes 
large, and this ought not to be overlooked in foals. 

"To conclude, in regard to the lower joints, of the 
shanks, namely, and the fetlocks and the hoofs, behind, 
I have the same remarks to make, and no others, than 
those which I have made above." 

Little is known of the early history of the horse in 



26 THE HOBSE 

England. It is believed, however, that the native horses 
(early introduced) were greatly benefited by crosses with 
the cavalry -horses of the Roman garrisons. During the 
Norman Conquest heavy cavalry- horses were introduced. 
These horses constituted the most rapid and efficient 
force of the army. A heavy horse was needed to carry 
the great weight of arms and armor in addition to the 
rider. For hundreds of years after the Conquest two 
distinct kinds of horses were imported, the heavy horse 
of Flanders and the light but more active horse of 
Spain and the Orient. 

The earliest suggestion that horses were used in 
agriculture. is said to be derived from a piece of Baj^eux 
tapestry, where a horse is represented as drawing a 
harrow. This, however, must have been an exceptional 
case, for we know that oxen were used until a com- 
paratively late time, and that in Wales a law existed 
forbidding horses to be used for plowing.^ 

It will not be necessary for our purpose to give 
here the history of the horse previous to his introduc- 
tion into England and France for the purposes of 
agriculture and road work, except so far as it maj^ be 
necessary to understand the causes which have produced 
the various breeds and varieties, and their distinctive 
characteristics. 

INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED HORSES INTO ENGLAND 

King John ascended the throne in 1199 and paid 
great attention to the improvement of the farm -horse, 
importing cue hundred heavy stallions from Flanders 

1 Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VIII, p. 181. 



IMPJROVED HORSES IN ENGLAND 27 

at one time. In the first quarter of the fourteenth 
century, Edward II imported both mares and horses 
of the draft type and fifty horses of Spanish blood. 
Before his time, England had enacted sumptuary laws 
in regard to horses, especially as to their exportation. 
Upon the whole, these laws were beneficial and did 
something toward improving the horse by retaining the 
good ones and by the exclusion, in part, for breeding 
purposes of inferior specimens. They were not re- 
pealed until the sixteenth century. They provided, 
among other things, that horses of a certain quality, 
or valued at a certain price, should not be exported. 
At the close of the fifteenth century, Henry VIII rigidly 
executed the laws which prohibited the exportation of 
both stallions and mares that were above a certain 
value, which resulted in selling the poorer and keep- 
ing the better animals. He also decreed that no stallion 
under the height of fifteen hands (sixty inches) should 
run at large on the commons, and that all foals, filleys 
or mares that were ill-shapen or undersized should be 
killed. Thus for about three hundred years intelligent 
effort was made to improve the horses of Great Britain 
by selection and by the admixture of superior blood 
of both Flemish and Spanish origin. 

In order to satisfy the Puritans, Oliver Cromwell 
forbade racing, which had already become very com- 
mon. Notwithstanding this, he was a lover of fast 
horses and purchased of Mr. Place a noted Arabian 
horse known as "White Turk," which was said to be the 
most beautiful horse of eastern origin ever imported 
into England. Many of the pedigrees of our present 



28 



THE HOBSE 



thoroughbred horses, and even of the trotters, trace 
directly in some lines to the noted animals imported 
before the close of Cromwell's reign, or to those im- 
ported prior to 1760. The names of the most noted of 
several importations follow : 

Place's White Turk \ Time of Common- 

Moroeco Barb \ wealth, 1653, 1649- 

Helmsley Turk J 1660 

Damascus Arabia \ 

Three Turks from Hamburg, 1684 I Charles II, 1660-1685 
Royal Barb or Turkish mares . . J 

Bverlv Turk ) 

c, .\,. rn 1 ^ James II, 1685-1688 

Straddling Turk J 

Darley Arabian 1 ^ ^ , „ ^^ 

^ *^ , T> 1 Queen Anne, 1702- 

Curwen's Barb > -.r.,. 

Carlisle's Turk ) 

Perhaps the most noted Arabian horse that was 
ever imported into England was Godolphin Arabian, 
during the reign of King George II (1727 to 1760). 
It is believed that every fast running or trotting 
horse's pedigree reaches back in some lines to one or 
more of the horses named above, or to the royal mares. 
In some cases the pedigree runs back to more than 
one of these noted stallions and to the royal mares 
also. Invariably, the pedigree of the running horse 
traces back to these noted ancestors in more lines than 
does that of the trotting horse. The pedigree of the 
trotting horse, if traced back far enough, usually ends, 
on the dam's side, in a "noted road mare" of unknown 
blood. It seems to be the consensus of opinion that 
horses bred true to the thoroughbred line cannot be 



NOTED IMPORTATIONS 29 

trained to trot as fast as those which have originated 
from out -crosses with animals not thoroughbreds, yet 
with some warm blood and built on lines similar to 
those of the thoroughbred, so modified as to better 
adapt them to a fast trotting or racking gait. 

Charles II (1660-1685) paid great attention to the 
turf, sending his Master of the Horse to the Levant^ 
to import both mares and stallions, and it is to these 
imported mares that the name of "Royal Mares" has 
been given. 

The Spanish horses imported into England, it is 
believed, were identical, or nearly so, with the oriental 
blood; and the reason for sometimes importing Span- 
ish horses instead of those from the Orient, was that 
at this early period (first quarter of the fourteenth 
century. King Edward) some of the Spanish horses 
were more improved and better than Arabian horses. 
It is quite probable that some of the running horses 
of England and the trotting horses of America have 
first an infusion of warm blood through the Spanish 
horse, and later through direct importation from Arabia 
and contiguous countries. 

1 Levant, the east, the point where the sun rises, especially the coun- 
tries of Turkey, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Egypt, etc., which are 
washed by the eastern part of the Mediterranean and its contiguous 
waters. 

Various names are applied to the horse which has wholly, or in large 
part, the blood of the Orient; as the "hot-blooded," "thoroughbred," 
"running horse," "Arabian" and "Oriental horse." The term "Orient" 
(the east), as used in works on the horse, is usually applied to the coun- 
tries of Arabia, Morocco, Barbary and Turkey. Although Arabia is now 
thought to possess horses of the best quality, the other countries men- 
tioned, and even Spain, in early days, are said to have possessed better 
horses than did Arabia. 



30 THE HOBSE 

It will be seen that Great Britain derived her horses 
from those which were in the country at the time of 
Caesar's invasion (55 B. C), which subsequently were 
improved by importation of Flemish draft- horses and 
others of the same type, and by the oriental horse 
from Barbary, Arabia and Turkey, and from Spain. 
It was not long before two distinct typea were devel- 
oped, — the draft - horse and the light thoroughbred. 
There were, indeed, many intermediate types, but these 
two types for a long time stood at the head of all 
others. From these have come varieties, a few of 
which have developed into breeds sometimes varying 
greatly in form and specialized qualities. Something 
analogous to this also transpired in France, and here, 
too, is seen the draft- or heavy horse and the light, 
quick mover. 

The people of Great Britain have always been 
noted for their love of agriculture and the chase. 
From time immemorial, equine display accompanied 
the public appearance of royalty, and this -encouraged 
outdoor sports among the people. Whoever main- 
tained one or more horses found a ready passport 
into society, which could not be entered in absence 
of such ownership. While Britain's greatest strength 
in modern times is her navj^ she nevertheless main- 
tains a numerous and efficient cavalry. 

Not the least of the forces which have long been 
at work for the improvement of light horses is the 
universal love of the English for outdoor sports, and 
especially for those which test the speed and endurance 
of the horse, as well as the skill of its rider. The 



PERCRERON HORSE MODIFIED 31 

English farmer has also acquired a love for the horse. 
Although as a rule, he does not, participate in the race, 
he is everywhere conspicuous and has thus learned 
to admire, almost adore, the hunter. He also takes 
special interest in the agricultural- and draft -horses for 
their strong, symmetrical, plump form and size and their 
ability to work. Consequently, in breeding and im- 
provement, the draft -horse has kept pace with those 
of lighter and fleeter forms. Perhaps no other people 
has done so much for the improvement of the horse, 
and the dissemination of well-bred animals, as the 
Anglo-Saxons. America is certainlj^ indebted to Great 
Britain for a wealth of valuable foundation stock with 
which to begin horse-breeding. 

THE HORSE IN FRANCE 

Until quite recently, France has furnished to America 
only one breed of horses, the heavy Percheron,^ which 
has been imported very largely during the last third 
of the nineteenth century. Percherons have been most 
popular in the west, while in the east the Clydesdales 
remain as popular as they were before the introduction 
of other draft -breeds. 

The Percheron^ horse has a most interesting historj^ 
since he is a marked illustration of the successful 
mingling of the hot blood of the Orient with the 
cold -blood draft types. The blending of types so mark- 

1 Known by several names; see Chapter VIII. 

2 For a full history of the early Percheron horse, see "Percheron 
Horse," translated from the French of Charles Du Huys (1868), Orange 
Judd Co., New York. 



32 THE HORSE 

edly dissimilar in nearly all characteristics, into a 
harmonious, prepotent breed, is not only difficult, but 
quite unusual. 

Little is known of the character of the horses of 
France prior to admixture with foreign blood. A 
marked change in them began to appear soon after 
the battle of Tours (732 A. D.), in which Charles 
Martel defeated the famous Saracen chief, Abdurame, 
and killed the infidels to the number of three hundred 
thousand. The horses of the Saracens, like themselves, 
came from the East. Upon a division of the spoils, 
a large number of the horses were assigned to the 
Hien of LaPerche, Orleanais and Normandy, who com- 
posed the bulk of the French forces. The custom then, 
as now, was to leave most of the horses entire; there- 
fore the magnificent cavalry -horses of Abdurame must 
have had marked beneficial effects on the native horses 
of France. These three provinces still constitute the 
central breeding districts of the Percheron. 

Du Huys says, "The Percheron race comes from 
Arabia," but he adds that "the Percheron must have 
been especially modified by contact with the horses of 
Britanny." The present form and appearance of this 
breed give unmistakable evidence that great modifica- 
tions and changes have taken place in recent years, and 
such changes can be ascribed only to an infusion of 
cold blood through some well-defined breed or variety 
of draft animals. 



CHAPTER III 

HORSES OF AMERICA 

The horse, as we know it, is not indigenous to 
North America. All horses that are found in America, 
except those that have been brought into the country 
within the last few years, are offspring of imported 
stock. Since the imported animals from which our 
horses are derived were of widely different character- 
istics and have been kept under radically different 
climatic, food and use conditions, the offspring have 
presented until recently few fixed and distinguishing 
characteristics. Especially has this been the case when 
the imported stock or their full -blood offspring were 
mixed with the nondescript^ females which often con- 
tained the mixed blood of several breeds or varieties 
differing radically in size, color and disposition. This 
unintelligent mixing of several unlike breeds with 
mixed-blooded animals, combined with unwise selection, 
has produced horses devoid of marked or specialized 
qualities. While there are modern methods practiced 
to a limited extent where the breeding of horses is 
pursued along scientific lines, so that the specialized 
qualities of parents are perpetuated with some degree 
of certainty, yet most of the horses bred in America 
are of mixed origin ; that is, they trace their genealogy 

^An animal of mixed and unknown ancestry. 
C (33) 



34 THE EOBSE 

to nearly as many breeds, siibbreeds, nondescripts 
and varieties as they have American ancestors. Hence, 
in the rural districts we see many inferior horses — 
horses of varied colors, conformation, temper, size and 
degrees of usefulness. Some are worth ten times as 
much as others, yet the least valuable cost as much 
for maintenance and nearly as much for rearing as 
the animals that sell for the higher prices. This brief 
outline of the method in the breeding of the general 
horse of America may in part serve to explain the 
discussions that follow. 

All the wild horses of modern times are, without 
doubt, the offspring of those which escaped from 
domestication in earlier centuries. Those of the Volga, 
the steppes of northern Asia, and those of the northern 
districts of China are supposed to be the offspring of 
horses liberated at the siege of Azof, 1657; those of 
Texas, of horses abandoned by DeSoto (1539-1542), 
or possibly of those turned loose at the time the 
Spaniards retired from Buenos Ayres and which were 
the foundation of the wild horses of South America. 
It is scarcely probable, however, that those liberated 
in South America would wander from a district where 
pasture was abundant and the climate mild, northward 
through the swamps of the tropical isthmus into 
Texas. It may be concluded then, that the wild horses 
of North and South America sprang from two distinct 
groups, both of which were of Spanish blood. No 
fossil remains of the modern horse have been discov- 
ered either in America, Australia or the islands of the 
Pacific. It may, therefore, be concluded that the horse 



CONESTOGA AND CANADIAN HORSES 35 

as now known was not indigenous to those countries. 
On the other hand, fossil remains of the horse of 
supposed extreme antiquity have been discovered in 
Great Britain, in the Kirkdale cave in Yorkshire, as 
well as in other caves, mingled with the bones of the 
elephant, rhinoceros, ox and tiger, and it is therefore 
presumed that horses were abundant in Great Britain 
at an early period. 

The first importation of horses to this country was 
made by Columbus in 1493. These all perished. A second 
importation, forty-two in number, was made in 1527; a 
third was made by DeSoto in 1540. However, Cortez 
landed sixteen horses in Mexico, in 1519.^ In 1608, the 
French horse was brought to Canada, and in 1629 the 
Dutch horse to New York. The Dutch horse was 
round, short -legged and might properly be classed as 
a farm- or light draft -horse. These horses soon spread 
into Pennsylvania, and later were probably crossed 
with the English draft - horse. The progeny soon 
formed a somewhat distinctive type, developing into a 
distinct variety known as the Conestoga. This com- 
paratively light draft -horse, bred primarily for freight- 
ing heavy merchandise across the mountains and over 
primitive roads, was, notwithstanding his lightness, 
as compared with the modern draft -horse, well adapted 
to the pioneer's farm, where much work required 
patience, strength and hardiness. It is unfortunate 
that some genius did not, by selection and inbreeding, 
improve and preserve this nascent variety of animals 
until its valuable qualities had become fixed and 

1 Conquest of Mexico, Prescott, Vol. I, page 218. 



36 TH£] HORSE 

potent. Here was the foundation ready to be moulded 
by the hand of the scientific breeder into a permanent 
breed. This variety of horses had been in the country 
long enough to become thoroughly acclimated and 
adapted to environment, and had been used for draft 
purposes from the first; and therefore its conforma- 
tion had become especially adapted to draft purposes, 
and this, too, without becoming a sluggish, spiritless 
mountain of flesh. Unfortunately, this variety has 
become extinct or has merged into other draft types. 
The Canadian horses, many of which have found 
their way into the States, were also originally of the 
draft or semi -draft type, though not so large as 
the draft -horse of modern times. In recent years, 
however, the importations from Canada have been 
principally grade thoroughbreds for saddle, and light- 
harness horses. Formerly many heavy-draft horses were 
imported. However, in recent years the importations 
have fallen off. The French -Canadians imported horses 
from Normandy and Brittany, a warmer climate than 
that to which they were taken. The progeny, as might 
have been expected, lost something in weight, increased 
in thickness and length of hair, improved in texture of 
bone, and acquired more spirit than their ancestors. It 
may be said that these native -bred horses became well 
adapted in time to the needs of a cold, wooded, new 
country. Hardy, strong, alert, long-lived — it is un- 
fortunate both for the Dominion and the States that 
the type has been lost by admixture, on the one hand, 
with the heavy draft type, and, on the other, with the 
blood of the light roadster, or thoroughbred. 



A SADDLER OF THE PLAINS 37 

III like manner, the pacer, wliicli was probably of 
Narragansett (Rhode Island) origin, and which seemed 
likely at one time to develop into a breed, has been 
lost as a distinct variety. Although there has never 
been an active demand for animals inheriting the 
pacing gait, yet there was a distinct place for them; 
and it is to be regretted that breeders did not continue 
along the lines which gave unmistakable evidence of 
the highest success. Instead of developing breeds 
of horses in America, we have, at great expense, been 
drawing upon Europe for breeding stock, which was not 
always potent enough to effect any improvement upon 
our home-bred animals. 

In the Indian pony of the North, and the Indian 
mustang (Fig. 3) of the Southwest, and the bronco of 
the West, the foundation stock was ready at hand for 
the formation of a breed of light saddle-horses, unex- 
celled by any other saddle breed for traveling long 
distances on scanty food. Instead of utilizing this 
valuable material, we have imported numbers of short- 
legged, pudgy ponies from Europe. It is objected that 
the wonderful little horse of the plains has not a good 
disposition. The same may be said of any other variety 
of high -mettled horses when subjected to ill treatment. 
On the plains he was merely trained; had he been fully 
domesticated and treated as kindly as the trotter has 
been, and as intelligently bred, there is no doubt 
that this class of horses, which will soon be extinct, 
would have developed into a most valuable breed. From 
this warm-blooded horse, though many generations 
removed from his Spanish ancestry, a pure saddle breed 



38 



TEE HORSE 



might have been formed, admirably adapted to the 
arid plains, and filling a place so difficult to fill that, 
as yet, no new variety or breed has been able to 




Fig. 3. An improved mustang saddler 



fully supplant it, or to fill its place in all respects as a 
saddler of the plains. 

Mr. Frank Forester, in his work on the American 
horse, after deploring the lack of attention to Arneri- 



TEE AMERICAN BOADSTEE 39 

can varieties, says: "On the contrary, while the 
Conestoga horse, the Canadian, the Indian pony of 
the North, the Indian mustang of the South, the 
Norman horse of the northeastern British Provinces, 
the pacer and the general working, or farm-horse, of 
the middle states, have no chronicler, we go on import- 
ing and studying elaborate treatises on the English 
hackney, the English cart-horse, the English dray- 
horse, the Suffolk Punch, the Cleveland bay, the 
Galloway, the Shetland pony, and I know not what 
else; when it is notorious to every horseman in the 
country that not one of these varieties does exist — ever 
did exist — except in the case of the individual importa- 
tion; or, if they do exist, would be of any value or 
utility in North America." Perhaps this statement is 
somewhat overdrawn; nevertheless, it contains much 
truth . 

Previous to the Revolutionary War, a number of 
thoroughbred horses had been imported, but none of 
the states or colonies had regularly established race- 
courses except Maryland, Virginia and South Carolina. 
The northerner paid little attention to the breeding 
of thoroughbreds until nearly half a century after the 
war. From the race -horse it was an easy step to the 
trotter. Out of the oriental racing blood, tracing 
back in some lines to the time of Charles II (1660-1685), 
has been developed in the United States a most valu- 
able, it might be said wonderful horse, the American 
trotter or roadster. Many causes have led to his pro- 
duction. A single one, on account of its uniqueness, 
may be mentioned. To the Puritans, the running of 



40 THE HORSE 

horses was a sinful pastime, and the gait, therefore, a 
useless and a dangerous one, hence everything was 
done to discourage the breeding of a horse which was 
almost certain to be used largely for racing. The 
trotting gait was useful and not so likely to lead 
youths astray; so until quite recently running horses 
were excluded from the tracks of the State and County 
Agricultural Societies of the eastern and middle 
states, while trotting horses were freely admitted. 
Thus the Puritans unwittingly did much to encour- 
age the improvement of the trotter. The South fol- 
lowed more closely after English customs, hence ra- 
cing in most of the southern states has always been 
popular; while in the North the trotting gait in horses 
has been more prized, and little attention has been 
paid to the running horse until the last two decades. 
He is now nearly as jiopular in the North as in the 
South. 

From an admixture of the hot blood of the East 
with the best specimens of the mixed blooded horses 
of the North has come, when it has been judiciously 
mingled, a large number of superior roadsters, — horses 
of courage, endurance and s{)eed, such as no other 
country possesses. These horses have had a very 
marked effect on the st^'le and construction of our 
light wagons. They have also been the means by 
which the American boy has become a superior horse 
man. On the other hand, it is true that too often 
the warm-blooded horses have been bred to inferior 
nondescript mares, which resulted in progeny of di- 
minished size and bone and undesirable temperament, 



THE AMERICAN ItOADSTEB 41 

without securing compensating benefits in any direc- 
tion. The anatomical proportions of these grades 
were often bad, the limbs too light and crooked for 
the service required, a temperament too high for the 
slow work of the industries and not fast enough to 
secure either prize money or pleasure. By this unwise 
breeding man}^ horses totally lacking in any specialized 
qualities have been produced, — horses which tended to 
become unsound as soon as they were used either for 
purposes of gain or pleasure. In some sections more 
unsound horses may be found in a single county 
than can be seen in the whole of any great horse dis- 
trict of France or Great Britain. 

The cold climate of the North made equestrianship 
unpleasant for half of the year. The trotter is not 
usually a good saddle-horse; hence roadsters have 
been bred in greater numbers and perfection in the 
northern and western parts of the United States than 
in any other part of the world. The comparatively 
fine condition of the roads in summer makes it possible 
for two or three persons, with one horse attached to 
a light vehicle, to travel as rapidly as the equestrian, 
and far more comfortably in bad weather. The inge- 
nuity and skill of the American mechanic, exhibited 
in the various forms of road - wagons, have had a 
potent influence in the development of a class of 
rapid, pleasure - giving roadsters, such as no other 
country even approaches. On the plains and in the 
South the saddle-horse became a necessity. The high- 
mettled horse well suited to the saddle was not the 
best animal for unskilled laborers to use in the cotton. 



42 THE HOBSE 

and cane fields of the South, so the mule came in to 
fill the gap. 

It is difficult to explain why Americans have not 
produced a dozen breeds or varieties of horses, each as 
well fitted for its locality and use as the roadster is 
fitted for the place which he fills so well in our broad, 
diversified country. We had a rare foundation in the 
greatest of all the pioneer horses, the Morgan family, 
but were so slow in recognizing it that it has nearly 
slipped from our grasp. Perhaps this dearth of Ameri- 
can breeds is due to the magic of that one word, "im- 
ported," which occupies the most prominent place on 
the breeder's hand -bills, when he calls attention to the 
animals bought and bred. It is asserted that many 
grades, or at least animals of doubtful breeding, have 
been imported at long prices; — that magic word, "im- 
ported," serving to take the place of an authenticated 
pedigree long enough to insure that the animal really 
belonged to some well-defined breed. 

Pedigrees taken from the first volumes of stud- 
books are appended, to show on what slender evidence 
the claim of pure breeding in earlj' daj's was some- 
times based. In both cases the full recorded pedigree is 
transcribed : 

210 

NAILOR 

Bred by Thomas Barker, Fryton 

356 

WONDER 

Sire Volunteer, 557 



''IMPORTED^ 43 

A large number of similar pedigrees might be 
given, but they would serve no useful purpose. The 
object in transcribing these is to illustrate how little 
claim can be made to pure breeding of animals whose 
breeder's name, date of birth and name of sire and 
dam are all wanting. However, short pedigrees do not 
necessarily imply inferiority nor lack of prepotency of 
the animals to which they belong. While it is desir- 
able to know as much as possible of every horse's 
ancestry, it is easy to lay too much stress on pedigree 
and too little on the intrinsic value of the horse for 
the use contemplated. 

There has been no time during the last century 
when superb animals could not have been selected 
from varieties of horses in America with lineage well 
known for two or three generations. A little judg- 
ment in mating, rigid selection and improved food 
and environment would have resulted in the forma- 
tion of breeds as valuable as those which have been 
imported at great expense and better adapted to 
climate, food and use than are the progeny, as a 
whole, of foreign -bred sires and dams. We have a 
marked illustration of the success of such an under- 
taking in the American trotter. It may be said that 
the foundation stock, in part at least, was imported. 
But if no effort had been made to produce a distinct 
American variety of horse, we should still be import- 
ing hot - blooded foundation stock of far less speed 
than is possessed by the home-bred animals. It is 
little wonder, then, that so distinguished a writer on 
the horse as Frank Forester should call attention, in 



44 THE HORSE 

most vigorous language, to the ueglect of home-bred 
varieties and the craze for importing varieties (so- 
called breeds) so recent in their formation and of 
such doubtful lineage as to throw discredit on the 
purity of blood and the potency of some of the 
animals imported. 

The saving factors which have been present in 
America for nearl3' one hundred years are — abundant, 
cheap, nutritious food and unusually- kind and intel- 
ligent treatment. So, notwithstanding mistakes and 
lost opportunities, we have large numbers of good 
horses, and some superior ones which compensate in 
part for the poor ones. One only regrets that a fuller 
utilization has not been made of the unusually favor- 
able conditions in America for the rearing and improv- 
ing of horses and the formation of breeds and varieties. 

The South has always possessed many good saddle- 
horses, but it is only recently that any well-defined 
effort has been made to produce a distinct breed of 
them. The southern saddle-horse and all good car- 
riage-horses have a strong infusion of warm blood. 
This, united with the best of what might be called 
native blood (nondescript), often produced superior 
animals. The material for forming the ideal saddle- 
horse has long been present, but only recently has 
any intelligent and persistent effort been made to 
produce a distinct saddle breed or variety. (Fig. 4.) 
Such marked results have been reached by these few 
years of well-directed effort that the only wonder 
is the work had not been undertaken before. In a 
similar manner other American breeds, suited to their 




±'iu. 4. A saddler at rest 



46 THE HORSE 

work and environment as well as the saddle-horse and 
the trotter are to theirs, should have been pi*oduced; 
for good material in abundance has been at hand during 
the last half of this centur3'.^ 

Notwithstanding the neglect and want of apprecia- 
tion of the material at hand for forming breeds, vast 
numbers of good nondescript horses are raised each 
year. The great city markets and the expert pur- 
chasers of cavalry -horses attest to the quality of one 
class of our horses at least when rapid movement and 
endurance are desired. The climate, food and environ- 
ment of the American -bred horse must certainly be 
superior, since, in a majority of cases, but little science 
has been observed or pains taken in mating the parents 
with a view to the production of definite results. 

The breeders who are improving the horses of the 
country by breeding with one or more distinct pur- 
poses in view, and who are securing definite results of 
great value, are so few as compared with those who 
breed to the cheapest or the most convenient stallion, 
that the improvement of the great mass of horses 
is very slow. From 1890 to 1900, poor and common 
horses brought low and unremunerative prices; while 
the prices of good horses, though sales were a little 
slow, fell but slightly. The mistake should not again 
be made of breeding vast herds of third-rate animals. 
It has been discovered that Europe stands ready to 
purchase at fair prices large numbers of horses, pro- 
vided they have some style, are sound, active, sym- 
metrical, of good color and of about nine to twelve 

1 See Chapters IV to VIII for details of breeds. 



TH±J COMMONER HORSE 47 

hundred pounds weight. This class of horses should 
now be produced cheaply, if pains are taken in bringing 
together the appropriate strains of blood. The founda- 
tion stock for the production of this class of animals is 
at hand and abundant. Such horses are well adapted 
to more than three -fourths of the work performed by 
horses in the United States. What is wanted is a 
slightly modified and enlarged old-fashioned Morgan 
horse, with feet like iron, legs like steel, hair like silk, 
courage that never falters and placidity that never 
degenerates into sluggishness. Such a horse will charm 
the multitude, though he be not a mountain of flesh, nor 
as fleet as a grey-hound, nor his name be writ high in 
the roll of aristocratic equines. He will onlj' be a dis- 
tinguished commoner, a citizen of the great horse 
republic. Such a horse will not be a so-called "general- 
purpose horse," neither will he be specialized toward 
draft or speed, — just a mighty hand}^ fellow to have 
around, ready and willing at all times to "fetch and 
carry," so long as he is not asked to fetch with light- 
ning speed or carry the elephant's burden. He will not 
be a true, high-priced coach -horse, nor the ideal 
saddle-horse. 

In imagination I see this commoner horse ready 
to serve the citizen: Bay in color, black points, short 
back with neck which has a little suggestion of the 
peacock's and an eye that meets your gaze bravely; 
a collar seat which lovingly embraces the shoulders, 
a breast which protrudes like the prow of a schooner, 
legs wide enough apart to prevent their interfering 
and to give room for the inside leg muscles strong 



48 THE HORSE 

enough firmly to attach the limbs to the body; so 
close -ribbed that one will not continually be re- 
minded of a slatted corn -crib that can never be kept 
full, and yet not so close -ribbed as to prevent long 
action, for it is evident that a short -bodied, very close- 
ribbed horse must be short-gaited; that symmetrical 
development of hind legs, rump and levers which can 
neither be fully described nor illustrated, but the 
symmetry of which the trained eye takes in at a 
glance, and the judgment approves because the pro- 
peller end of this complex machine gives evidence 
that it will make things move in this work -a -day world. 
Who will breed these horses, always salable at 
fair prices, wanted not only in America but in Europe 
as well, in countless numbers ? There is a superabun- 
dance of foundation stock from which to select. Such 
an animal as has been described is not difficult or 
expensive to produce. He may be of mixed -blood 
ancestry and j^et be very good in his class. He will 
stand intermediate between the two extremes and 
might be bred on the principle described by the owner 
of a very superior dog, w^ho, when asked about the 
blood of the dog, replied that he was "half pointer, 
quarter setter and the remainder just plain dog." 



CHAPTER IV 

BREEDS, SUBBBEEDS, FAMILIES, VARIETIES, 
CROSS-BREEDS AND GRADES 

The terra "breed," as used by the farraer, signifies 
a group or class of aniraals having a number of dis- 
tinctive qualities and characteristics in common, and 
the power to transmit those distinctive traits with a 
good degree of certainty. Such groups of animals 
have distinctive names, such as "thoroughbred," 
"Clydesdale," "Percherou," "Shorthorns" and recorded 
pedigrees usually tracing back for two, three or more 
generations. In the case of a long-established breed, 
as the Shorthorns, the recorded pedigree may go 
back a hundred years or more and for many generations. 

A breed is usually started by selecting two or more 
unusually good animals from a group that has been 
produced in a localitj^ by reason of better food, en- 
vironment and intelligent selection, and which is 
usually superior to the animals of the same species in 
other localities. These few having been selected, 
inbreeding is practiced to a greater or less extent for 
the purpose of perpetuating and intensifying one or 
more desired characteristics. At first this work is 
usually carried on by one, or at most a few, of the 
most intelligent breeders, who, by improving condi- 
tions, have first improved the quality of their own 

D (49) 



50 THE HORSE 

stock. From time to time animals with some superior 
characteristics are selected from the nascent variety, and 
these are inbred for a time, producing a variety which 
may develop into a breed. Again, a family may be 
formed within the breed by selection and inbreeding. 
For instance, the breed of Shorthorn cattle contains 
several quite noted families, such as the Duchess and 
the Waterloo. The term "tribe" is sometimes used 
instead of "family" in this connection. A small group 
of animals which have been improved but have not 
yet taken on all of the fixed characteristics of a breed 
should be called a "variety." Under skilful man- 
agement it may, and usually does, ripen into a breed. 
When the breeders of a group or variety decide that 
the distinctive characteristics are reasonably well fixed, 
they publish what is known of the breeding of the 
better animals of this variety in a first volume of a 
stud-book, herd- or flock -book, and thus the breed 
makes it official appearance. In the United States 
and Canada there are now published by the various 
livestock registry associations twenty-one pedigree 
records of horses, twenty-five of cattle, thirty-one of 
sheep and twenty -two of swine. A volume for each 
breed is usually published annually. (See Appendix, 
for further information.) 

It will readily be seen that when the attempt is made 
to launch a breed and establish a record of genealogy, 
or pedigree, for the various animals selected for such 
record, the first pedigrees must be based on un- 
published records. Not infrequently, some of the 
foundation stock are recorded simply by name, and 



ESTABLISHING A PEDIGREE 51 

nothing is said of ancestors, because nothing is known 
of them. In the case of trotting -horses the pedigree 
may end abruptly on the dam's side by the statement 
"out of a good road mare." Fortunately, the launching 
of a new breed and the admission of animals to 
registry are placed in the hands of an expert and 
reliable committee or commission. The rules governing 
the registration of animals of different breeds in the 
first volume, and sometimes in a few subsequent volumes, 
are quite variable, and half-bloods, three-fourths bloods 
and even animals of unknown origin are sometimes 
registered in the first instance. As the years go by, the 
rules for admission to registration are made more strict, 
and finally no animal is eligible for record whose sire 
and dam are not recorded. Most recorded animals have 
three, four, or more generations of recorded ancestors 
on both the dam and the sire side. The Shorthorn Herd- 
book serves well to illustrate the subject of pedigrees, 
and has been selected for illustration because the first 
volume was compiled with great care and subsequent 
issues have been supervised most criticall3^ The first 
volume was issued when pedigrees were little prized 
by livestock farmers, yet the utmost care was taken 
to verify the quality and breeding of animals admitted 
to record, as well as the reliability of the breeders. 

The following records are taken from the first 
volume of Coate's English Shorthorn Herd-book. It 
will be seen that apparently no information whatever 
as to breeding was obtainable; nevertheless, we are not 
to suppose that these animals were not above the 
average of the cattle in their locality. In most herd 



52 THE HORSE 

books the males and females are designated by both 
names and numbers, while no number is given to the 
female shorthorns: 

No. 77, Blossom. 

No. 84, Blutcher. 

No. 87, Booth. 

So closely have the pedigrees of more recent 
recorded animals been supervised that it is possible to 
trace for from six to ten, and even to more generations, 
the ancestry of animals bred as far back as 1870 with 
scarcely a single break. One of many illustrations 
which might be cited is the pedigree, so far as the 
page will allow, of the Eighth Duchess of Geneva 
(Fig. 5), sold at public auction September 10, 1873, 
at New York Mills for $40,600. It would require a 
strip of paper some ten feet wide and three hundred 
feet long to give her entire pedigree and to record all 
of the names of her well -authenticated ancestors in 
ordinary writing in the form given below, in which 
but six generations are set down. As the number of 
ancestors in each generation increases in a geometrical 
ratio, the seventh generation would contain one hun- 
dred and twenty -eight ancestors, the tenth generation 
one thousand and twenty-four, and the fifteenth genera- 
tion thirty -two thousand seven hundred and sixty- 
eight ancestors. There are many animals now living 
which have still more extended pedigrees then the Eighth 
Duchess of Geneva. Some animals are recorded in both 
the English and the American herd-books. The num- 
bers in parentheses refer to the English, the others to 
the American records. 







%uJu^(^- 



^&^fc^ iSfiJlk^^ 



i^xx^e^ J J- 



(jfuLcrrcL 






OflertLS' 



<f C/orfi) 






,J4xeJiUJ Id¥' 



jQuuCl if- 









^ujc/u^ 55^ 



%A-uJxJU4 5J— 



^ 



Fig. 5. A superior pedigree 



54 THE HORSE 

As a rule, the longer the pedigree of the sire and 
dam the more closely will the offspring resemble its 
immediate parents, especially if they have been some- 
what inbred. If the pedigree of an animal contains 
the names of many noted ancestors, it gives value to 
the animal over and above that of one with a pedigree 
which contains few or no distinguished ancestors, pro- 
vided that the animals are equally meritorious. These 
latter are called "plain" pedigrees. But a long pedigree 
does not necessarily add value to the animal which 
possesses it. The pedigree value, then, consists largely 
in showing that the animal to which it belongs has 
been bred without any admixture of blood outside of 
the breed so far back as the pedigree extends, and it 
may also be of value in revealing the names and 
numbers of unusually meritorious ancestors. However, 
animals of unusual merit occasionally have short pedi- 
grees; the genealogical value of such a pedigree being 
based largely on the animal's prepotencj^ or on that of 
its near ancestors, and not on the length of time which 
has elapsed since its ancestors were first recorded. 

Both long and short pedigrees are found not only in 
the records of Shorthorns but in those of other breeds 
of animals, though most of the Shorthorns of today 
have longer recorded and better authenticated pedigrees 
than many other breeds of domesticated animals. 

A short and a long pedigree are given below and 
well illustrate the evolution of pedigree -making: 

Angus Ladd (1046). 
Foaled May, 1856. 
Sire, a horse belonging to the Earl of Strathmore. 
Pedigree unknown. 



ZU5% 












hi 41 









S77i 



266,7 



^^^ 



fliimJifutJUL 
\IuJvtijt/r~ 






'UjCL 

II 



9i ^ 



799 



/7le/rc<j/Tcf 

ni 

799 

fThrcuru 

ni 

7/hrcu/ru 



6/¥l uLudrtL 



9¥ 



799 



76>i, 



9¥ 
1/71 



H^ 



Fig. 6. A marked case of in-and-in breeding 



56 ^^^' 30BSE 

The pedigree of Alpliea Czar (Fig. 6) is one of 
many which might be cited to illustrate persistent 
inbreeding. It should be said, however, that the 
strict meaning of the term "inbred" is not well de- 
fined. In a general way it is used to designate the 
mingling of the blood of animals more closely related 
than second or third cousins. 

It will be noted that the genealogy of Moses (Fig. 
7) traces back ten times to Terah, and that so far as 
the record goes the ancestry of the father and mother 
of Moses are identical, with the exception of two 
paternal and one maternal ancestors. The fact should 
not be overlooked, however, that there are but forty- 
seven ancestors recorded, whereas he had in the eight 
generations four hundred and ten ancestors, and that 
in the last, or eighth, generation there are one hundred 
and twenty - eight maternal ancestors, only two of 
whom are mentioned in the record, and one hundred 
and twenty -eight paternal ancestors, only five of whom 
are mentioned. Stated mathematically, Moses' gene- 
alogy in the eighth generation traces back to two hun- 
dred and fifty -six ancestors and shows that he received 
two two -hundred -and -fifty -sixths of his blood from 
Haran, five two -hundred -and -fifty -sixths from Terah 
and two-hundred and forty -nine two -hundred -and -fifty- 
sixths from unknown and unrecorded blood. It is 
probable, however, that the ancestors of Moses not 
recorded were related more or less closely to those 
which are enumerated. In the case of domestic animals, 
the probabilities are that the unrecorded ancestors 
were not closely related, nor is it probable that they 



fflju^ jufO^ tlu- iya,trui. um/rrurr- 
aliu iMjL. yyijytt a </ti cL-Ant 
^/huoL /rtjc^/x^ cA/rtuj Al<'Uj»^jfA^<xyv^' 



jtOC^iJotlL, 



t^fnu'tLtM. 



Tllira^u 



djUtJ^ 





Jk^ 


tj^^^t. 


ej^atuc 


Sar^. 


>^,-n,«. de-^^^ 


CUMJ. 


h,:i.A2. ^"^--^ XJc-r^ 


ajoin-n. 


^uLul 


TTluLuJi. Jfo'n^ \Jt.TaM. 



QcJuJU 



oU^^ 



i<XA.^V- 



/' 



XitaJi, 







Jf/roA 








^JlSrU'ili. 




dUeuoje^ 




jU^^^. 


Jl-r-oJ^. 




ao/rxUi. 






(3uJic^ 


T'uJun- 


Jc^rOM. 


{jUkiUL 






iaJrantj 


IditLujJL 


n.L^ 3^ 






9/UoaA 


J^a^ra^ 


,7,.^ 



Fig. 7. Genealogy of Moses 



58 THE HOBSE 

came from homogeneous blood. For an extended dis- 
cussion of inbreeding, see Cliapter XII. 

A grade is the progeny of a full -blood and a 
"nondescript," the latter term meaning, in this con- 
nection, an animal usually having little or no improved 
blood and of no authenticated and recorded ancestry. 
The term "high grade" is usually applied to animals 
which have derived seven -eighths or more of their blood 
from the full-blooded ancestry. This term is seldom 
used to indicate the lineage of horses, they being 
specifically termed half-blood, three -fourths blood, and 
so on. 

Subbreeds are formed by selecting, from a breed, 
two or more animals which may vary slightly from the 
usual type of the breed, and then by accentuating 
the differences by means of improved food, manage- 
ment and selection. A good illustration of a subbreed 
is the Delaine Merino sheep. This subbreed was 
started by selecting animals that produced wool longer 
than the average. These were put under better con- 
ditions and when the offspring varied toward wool 
of a longer staple and yet of good quality, they were 
preserved. Those were discarded which did not show 
improvement along the line desired and also those 
which tended to revert to the shorter -wooled tj-pe. If 
the increase in the length of wool had been secured by 
a cross with one of the long -wooled breeds, then the 
term "cross-breed" would have been appropriate. 

A cross-bred animal is the progeny of two distinct 
breeds, as the White Plymouth Rock, which was prob- 
ably produced by crossing the White Leghorn with the 



GOOD ANIMALS STIMULATE PBIDE 59 

Plymouth Rock. If the breed was formed as it is 
asserted, then a more appropriate name for these fowls 
would be Plymouth Leghorns. 

If, then, as has been stated, a pedigree may be long 
or short, may be deficient or complete on the dam's 
side, may contain many, few or no distinguished an- 
cestors, is it still helpful and valuable, and if so, in 
what ways? If a pedigree be scanned closely it may 
reveal first the time which has elapsed since the breed 
took on. well - defined characteristics. Other things 
being equal, the longer the breed has been established 
the greater are the chances that the offspring will 
closely resemble, in all of its characteristics, its ances- 
tors. If one is familiar with the breed under con- 
sideration, he will quickly recognize the names of the 
superior animals recorded in the pedigree. This will 
naturally lead to a study of the history and per- 
formance of these animals as set forth by the best 
informed writers who have been or are interested in 
the breeds; it gives assurance that the animal whose 
pedigree is being considered is pure bred and not a 
grade or a nondescript, and enables one to ascertain 
whether the animal in question is descended from su- 
perior specimens of the breed. It helps one to become 
acquainted with the methods practiced by the most 
successful breeders. A good knowledge of pedigrees 
and the possession of recorded animals are powerful 
stimulants, which are likely to result in an endeavor 
to improve the breed along one or more lines; and 
this in turn serves to stimulate an honest pride in the 
breeder's profession. 



60 THE HOBSE 

On the other hand, reliance on pedigree alone may 
work disastrous results if followed blindly. Individual 
merit should accompany a pedigree. When, as some- 
times happens, a pedigree is simply a record of degen- 
erates, it only helps to mislead. The eye of the breeder 
that is quick to detect every improvement or note the 
least tendency to retrogression is the chief thing to be 
relied upon when breeding any kind of domestic 
animals for improvement. 



CHAPTER V 

THE THOROUGHBRED; THE TROTTER; THE PACER 

Chapter by Roe Reisinger 

The American thoroughbred is descended in all his 
lines from the English race -horse, and he in turn from 
Arabian, Turkish and Barb stock. For more than 
a century and a half the English Stud-book has been 
maintained, in which has been registered every mare 
of thorough blood, by name, with her lineage and all 
her foals; the oldest and most remote of these mares 
tracing back their eight, nine or more generations to 
known Oriental horses, or horses known to be largely, 
if not wholly, Arabian, Turkish or Barb. No animal 
having an unknown or a cold cross within a hundred 
and fifty years back in its line could be entered in 
the English Stud-book, and no American horse can 
be regarded as thoroughbred that does not meet as 
high requirements. There have been a number of 
high -class race -horses whose pedigrees have been short 
in one or more lines, but never in the history of the 
turf has a great sire appeared in whose blood was a 
near cross other than thoroughbred. 

The British horse had a considerable degree of 
excellence before the Roman conquest and was a good 
subject for the later crossing with the Oriental breeds. 
Youatt, in his work on the horse, states that Caesar 

(61) 



62 THE HORSE 

thought the British horses so valuable that he carried 
many of them to Rome, and that for a considerable 
period afterward British horses were in great request 
in various parts of the Roman Empire. He states that, 
during the occupation of England by the Romans, the 
British horse was crossed to a considerable extent with 
the Roman horse; but he probably meant the foreign 
horses of the Roman mercenary or allied cavalry, 
from the fact that horses had been introduced into 
Britain from Gaul and chariot races were instituted 
long before the Christian era. This suggestion is 
adopted from the work of Herbert on the horse. In 
England, horse -racing early became a fixed custom. 
We learn from history that, after .the reign of Alfred, 
running horses were imported from Germany. That 
the English, fully a thousand years ago, had produced 
a valuable breed is shown by the fact that in 930 
A. D. a law prohibited the exportation of horses. 
Many Spanish horses were imported into England in 
Athelstan's reign. William the Conqueror rode a 
Spanish horse (probably of Oriental breed) at the 
battle of Hastings, and won the day by his cavalry. 
He imported many fine Norman, Flemish and Span- 
ish horses and his great nobles followed his example. 
Early writers attest the value of the stock descending 
from these sources. 

We learn from Fitz Stephen, a contemporary his- 
torian, that in the twelfth century a regular race- 
course had been established in London. He thus de- 
scribes the races: "When a race is to be run by horses 
which in their kind are strong and fleet, a shout is 



THE THOROUGHBRED 63 

raised, and common horses are ordered to withdraw 
from out of the way. Two jockeys, then, or some- 
times three, as the case may be, prepare themselves 
for the contest, such as are used to ride, and know 
how to manage their horses with judgment, the grand 
point being to prevent a competitor from getting 
before them. The horses, on their part, are not without 
emulation. They tremble, and are impatient and con- 
tinually in motion. At last, the signal once given, 
they hurry along with unremitting velocity; the 
jockeys, inspired with the thoughts of applause and 
the hopes of victory, clapping spurs to their willing 
steeds, brandishing their whips, and cheering them 
with their cries." 

The first Arab horse imported into Britain, of 
which we have certain knowledge, was presented by 
Alexander I., King of Scotland, to the Church of St. 
Andrew's, in the reign of Henry I. Richard I. im- 
ported two eastern horses, probably on his return 
from the Crusades. Their names were Favell and 
Lyard, and their qualities are thus set forth in Ellis' 
Metrical Romances: 

"In the world was not their peer, 

Dromedary, not destrere^ 
Steed, rabite, ne eamayl, 

That ran so swift sans fail. 
For a thousand pounds of gold, 

Should not that one be sold." 

Edward I. brought horses from the East. One of 
the accusations against the Templars was that, in vio- 

1 Destrere steed, a war-horse. 



64 THE HORSE 

lation of their vows of poverty and frugality, they 
maintained "eastern horses, dogs and birds for the 
chase and falconr}^ and other vain and worldly pleas- 
ures." Youatt narrates that Edward 11. purchased 
thirty war-horses and twelve heavy draft -horses. 
Edward III. devoted one thousand marks to the pur- 
chase of fifty Spanish horses, and he prized them so 
highly that he made formal application to the kings 
of France aud Spain to grant safe conduct to the troop. 
In the reign of Richard II. laws were made regu- 
lating the price of horses and prohibiting their expor- 
tation. Similar regulations were enforced by other 
English sovereigns, and in the reign of Henry III. 
it was decreed that no stallion should be suffered to 
run at large on any waste or common, where the 
animals pastured and were of course liable to breed 
promiscuouslj^ under the height of fifteen hands, on 
pain of forfeiture; and that all foals, fillies or mares 
likely to breed undersized or ill -shaped produce should 
be killed and buried. He also, by law, compelled all 
the nobility, gentry and higher order of the clergy to 
keep a number of horses proportionate to their rank. 
In Henry's reign, also, an enactment was enforced 
compelling the maintenance of a great number of full- 
sized mares and stallions in every deer park, and in 
every rural parish in the realm. These enactments 
could not fail to result in the great improvement of 
the horses of England. At that period an annual race 
was run at Chester. The prize was a wooden ball 
embellished with flowers, fixed upon the point of a 
lance. These trophies were provided by the company 



THE THOROUGHBRED 65 

of saddlers. In the year 1510 a silver bell was substi- 
tuted for the former prize, under the title of "St. 
George's Bell." Hence the common phrase to "bear 
the bell," as equivalent to being the victor. 

King James I. purchased Markham's Arabian horse 
at the price of five hundred pounds. Race meetings 
were now regularly held at various places in the 
kingdom, and a well-ordered system of training the 
horses, and of running according to weight, age and 
distance was introduced. Pedigrees were kept, the 
best and stoutest horses and mares were reserved for 
breeding, and their progeny were for the most part 
set aside for racing purposes. Misson, who traveled 
in England about the year 1641, writes: "The English 
nobility take great delight in horse races. The most 
famous are usually at Newmarket, and there you are 
sure to see a great many persons of the first quality, 
and almost all the gentlemen of the neighborhood. It 
is pretty common for them to lay wagers of two thou- 
sand pounds sterling upon one race." 

Though for nearly a century the best horsemen of 
England and America have held the thoroughbred 
horse to be no longer susceptible of improvement by 
a further infusion of Oriental blood, it must be borne 
in mind that there is very little of his blood that is 
not of the Arabian, Barb or Turk. In the year 1730 
it is known that the following named foreign horses 
of note were in the stud in England: The Alcock 
Arabian, the Godolphin Arabian, the Bloody But- 
tocks Arabian, Hall's Arabian, the Bloody Shoul- 
dered Arabian, Johnson's Turk, the Belgrade Turk, 

E 



6Q THE HORSE 

Litton^s Arabian, the Bethel Arabian, Matthew's 
Persian, Lord Burlington's Barb, Nottingham's Ara- 
bian, Crofts' Egyptian horse, Newton's Arabian, the 
Cypress Arabian, Pigott's Turk, the Duke of Devon- 
shire's Arabian, Strickland's Arabian, Greyhound, a 
Barb, Wynn's Arabian, Hampton Court Grey Barb 
and Dodsworth, a Barb. 

When the Puritan sect arose in England, they were 
violentlj^ opposed to horse -racing as a sinful pleasure, 
and those coming to New England carried with them 
that belief. In all the other early English settlements 
a contrary view prevailed. Race -courses were soon 
established at Long Island, Richmond, Charleston and 
other points, and the rich planters imported English 
thoroughbreds and raced them. The passion for rac- 
ing among the landed gentry of Maryland, Virginia 
and South Carolina was as strong as in the mother 
country. Many of our early statesmen kept race- 
horses; notable among them were General Washing- 
ton, General Jackson, Henry Clay, Thomas Jefferson 
and John Randolph. With Jackson, racing was a 
passion and he actually loved a race -horse. Until 
broken by age, his commanding figure was conspicu- 
ous at all the great southern courses. Among the 
earliest thoroughbred stallions brought to America was 
Brilliant, imported into Virginia in 1706. He was 
foaled in 1691, and was by Phenomenon, dam by Paco- 
let, grand- dam by Matchem, great -grand -dam by 
Oroonoka, and great -great -grand -dam by Traveller, 
etc. Previous to the Revolution, a great many impor- 
tations had been made and many native breeding 



THE THOROUGHBRED 



67 



establishments existed. As a fixed institution, until 
about the year 1800, racing was almost entirely con- 
fined to the states of Maryland, Virginia and South 
Carolina. Nearly all of the horses imported into 
those states were descendants of the Godolphin Ara- 
bian, the Byerly Turk, Spanker, Greyhound, the 




Fia. 8. Thoroughbred 

White Turk, Dodsworth, and Layton's Violet Barb 
mare. Herbert notes the fact that early American 
thoroughbreds ran through fewer generations to 
reach their Oriental parentage on both sides than the 
generality of English horses of the same date, and 
more fully showed the Arab and Barb or Turk char- 
teristics in height, figure and qualities. In 1829 was 
begun the first publication of a work for recording 



68 THE ffOBSU 

the pedigrees and performances of the race -horse in 
America. Since that time stud-books have been main- 
tained in which the pedigrees of all American thor- 
oughbreds may be found. Throughout the last cen- 
tury English thoroughbreds have been imported and 
crossed with our own stock till at this time the blood 
in both countries is the same, and the turf contests 
between English and American horses, here and in 
England, show that in racing qualities they are equal. 
At this time English horses are being constantly im- 
ported and American thoroughbreds are raced on all 
the courses in Europe. It is sometimes asserted that 
the race -horse has deteriorated, but this opinion is 
not held by intelligent breeders and turfmen. Though 
races at distances above two miles are not now in 
fashion, it is but a few j^ears since the fastest four- 
mile record was made, also the fastest for one and 
two miles. A recent writer thus contrasts early ra- 
cing with that of the present day. '4n old times horses 
ran seldom — often not more than five or six races in 
a year — often less. The races were over longer dis- 
tances, but they were specially prepared for them, 
and, as handicaps were few, the best horse had a 
pretty easy time. Besides, the number of horses was 
small. The returns of 1880 showed six hundred and 
forty foals. In 1900 as many as three thousand eight 
hundred and twenty -seven were reported to the Jockey 
Club. A good horse of today runs from fifteen to 
thirty races in a season, meeting a large number of 
competitors, and is asked to concede weight, and is 
kept in training fully nine months in the year. If 



THE THOROUGHBRED 69 

time is any criterion, there is no comparison between 
the horses of today and those of former years." 

While the most general use of the thoroughbred 
horse now is for racing, it is true that he is capable 
of a much extended utility. As a cavalry -horse a 
stout thoroughbred cannot be excelled. In pursuit 
or retreat his speed and endurance make him superior 
to all others. In Kentucky and Tennessee, where the 
thoroughbred is more common, he is often found doing 
excellent service as a driver and as a saddle-horse, 
and sometimes even in the cart or at the plow. Race- 
horses that have been broken down on the tracks 
around New York City are sold and put to all manner 
of uses. In a fine carriage team at Woodburn Farm 
a few years ago was a thoroughbred gelding whose 
mate was a standard trotter. Colonel Brodhead declared 
the former to be far the best carriage -horse of the 
two. The favorite driving horse of the wife of Gov- 
ernor Stanford was a thoroughbred son of Don 
Victor. 

It can be truthfully said that the blood-horse has 
almost reached the highest state of possible improve- 
ment, and is the most perfect of the horse kind. For 
beauty, intelligence, courage, speed and endurance 
nothing approaches him. The tribute of Job justly is 
his : 

"Hast thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his 
neck with thunder ? 

Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper ? the glory 
of his nostrils is terrible. 

He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he 
goeth on to meet the armed men. 



70 THE HORSE 

He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth 
he back from the sword. 

The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and 
the shield. 

He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither 
believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. 

He saith among the trumpets, ha, ha ! and he smelleth the 
battle afar off, the thunder of the captains and the shouting." 



THE TROTTING HORSE 

The trotting gait is natural to nearly all kinds of 
domestic animals, and also to many wild varieties, as 
the deer, the elk, the wolf. The wild horses on the 
plains of South America and on our western prairies 
go at a trot when moving neither very slowly nor at 
full speed. It is definitely known that since Greek and 
Roman times trotting has been the ordinary gait of 
the domesticated horse. Some exceptions should be 
mentioned. At an early date in England, fully six 
hundred years ago, ambling -horses were in use chiefly 
for women to ride. "Uppon an amblere esely sche sat" 
(Chaucer). We would now call them racking or pacing 
ponies, as their gait was a slow, irregular pace, or what* 
was called, previous to the last forty years, a rack, and 
the horse in England, until as late as the year 1500, 
was rarely above thirteen hands. 

As, in later times, riding on horseback hy women 
ceased as a custom, the ambler, racker or pacer went 
out of use and is not now found anywhere in England. 
The trotting-horse there completely occupies the field 
for riding, drawing coaches and light vehicles. Within 



THE TROTTER 71 

the last tvYenty years, trotting races have become very 
popular in England, France, Italy, Austria and Russia, 
and breeding farms for trotters have been established 
in all of those countries. A large number of fast 
trotters have been purchased in the United States and 
taken to Europe for use on track and in the stud. The 
races there are for longer distances than prevail here, 
being from one- to five -mile heats. The custom could 
well be followed on American tracks, as it tends to 
produce horses of greater endurance on the track and 
on the road. The English riding -horse goes at the 
walk, trot and canter. No other gait is tolerated. 

That the ambler or pacer in England should dis- 
appear where it was no longer desired, was the result 
of a natural law. His origin was due to breeding and 
training, and when all efforts in that direction ceased 
his extinction followed. English books on the horse, 
published more than two hundred years ago, contain 
cuts of horses being trained to amble, rack or pace 
by the use of mechanical devices, such as ropes on 
the legs, iron balls tied to the ankles and obstructions 
placed on the ground. In America, until within t^e 
last century, the unsettled state of the country and 
the absence of wagon-roads made horseback-riding the 
usual mode of travel, and, for that reason, horses were 
desired possessing an easier gait under saddle than 
trotting. This mad,e an extensive demand for the racker 
or broken -gaited horse. Aside from training, the use 
of a horse as a saddler, on rough roads, naturally 
tends to impair the purity of his gait as a trotter, as 
that gait is less comfortable to both himself and his 



72 



THE HOJiSE 



rider. In localities where saddle-horses are needed it is 

a common thing to see horses which, when ridden, go at 

all the saddle gaits, but when driven are square trotters. 

Changed conditions in America have now made the 




Fig. 9. Lou Dillon, 1:58>2, hokler of the world's trotting record 

saddle-horse chiefly of use for pleasure, and the trotter 
overshadows him in importance. 

For racing purposes the trotting -horse has a rival 
in America in the modern pacer, a variety that has 
been vastly improved within the past twenty -five years. 
(Reference is made to what is given under the heading, 
"The Pacing Horse.") 

While the trotting -horse had reached a degree of 



THE TROTTER 73 

excellence in England and on the continent nearly two 
centuries ago, and was capable of maintaining a con- 
siderable rate of speed in races of from four to twenty 
miles, up to the year 1806, no trotting -horses in 
Europe or America had taken a record of a mile in less 
than three minutes. In that year the horse Yankee 
took a record, on a half-mile track, of 2:59, at Harlem, 
N. Y. The record was gradually lowered, but thirty- 
nine years passed before any horse trotted a mile in 
2:30. In 1845, the gray mare Lady Suffolk won a 
race on Beacon Course, Hoboken, N. J., trotting in 
2:29%. The first trotter to beat 2:20 was Flora Temple, 
who took a record of 2:19%, in 1859, at Kalamazoo, 
Mich. Following are the notable reductions of the 
trotting record since that time: 

Dexter, 2:17^^, in 1867. 

Goldsmith Maid, 2:14, in 1874. 

Rarus, 2:13)^, in 1878. 

St. Julien, 2:12X, in 1879. 

Jay Eye See, 2:10, in 1884. 

Maud S., 2:08%, in 1885. 

Sunol (a three-year old), 2:10X, in 1889. 

Nancy Hanks, 2:04%, in 1892. 

Alix, 2:03%, in 1894. 

The Abbot, 2:03%, in 1900. 

Cresceus, 2:02%, in 1902. 

Major Delmar, 1 : 59%, in 1903. 

Lou Dillon, 1:58%, in 1903. 

The great increase in the speed of the trotting -horse 
is striking evidence of what may be done by intelligent 
breeding and training, but it must not be thought that 
the records of Yankee, 2:59, in 1806; Lady Suffolk, 
2:29%, in 1845, and Lou Dillon, 1:58%, (Fig. 9) in 



74 THJ^ HORSE 

1903, constitute a true measure of the increase of speed 
in the trotter. It should be borne in mind that great 
improvement has been made in tracks, sulkies, harness 
and all the equipments of the fast trotter. The per- 
formance of Lady Suffolk in trotting a mile in 2:29%, 
in 1845, was fully equal to a mile in 2:15 under present 
conditions. When Maud S. took her record of 2:08%, 
in 1885, she drew an old-fashioned high-wheeled sulky, 
on a regulation track; a feat that stood unmatched 
for nearly twenty years. In 1891, Sunol, by Electioneer, 
trotted a mile to a high- wheeled sulky in 2:08%, but 
it was done on a kite-shaped track, which some horse- 
men believe to be a shade faster than the oval, when 
attempts are made at extreme speed. The stallion 
Palo Alto, also by Electioneer, took his record of 2:08% 
to a high- wheeled sulky, but this performance, like that 
of Sunol, was on a kite -shaped track. Sunol, Maud S., 
Palo Alto, Cresceus Major Delmar and Lou Dillon 
mark the highest development of speed of the trotter. 
The progress in breeding has been steadilj^ upward. 
Though so much has been accomplished, it cannot 
be said that there has yet been produced a breed of 
trotters in the sense that the thoroughbred horse, 
the setter and collie dog, and the game and Dork- 
ing chicken, are ranked as breeds. This is due to 
the comparatively late period of the commencement 
of anything like a systematic effort to establish a 
breed, and to the irrational methods of many breeders. 
A striking illustration of this proposition is the 
fact that the National Trotting Horse Breeders' 
Association for years had rules which admitted for 



THJS TROTTER 



75 



t J llllll»IW^WW*»ft 



'%K. 







By courtesy of •• Pittsburg Utspatcn 
Fig. 10. Cresceus, 2:02^ 

registry, as standard trotters, animals that neither 
trotted nor had a trotter for sire or dam. A record at 
pacing or having a sire or dam with pacing records 
entitled an animal to admission to the trotting standard. 
As well admit a Jersey cow with a certain milk or 



76 THE ffOBSJU 

butter record to registry in the Shorthorn Herd -book. 
Years ago the folly of such action was seen and the 
rule was abrogated, but, while it stood, hundreds of 
short-sighted breeders fell into the delusion and used 
pacing sires and dams in the vain hope of producing 
fast trotters. The fallacy of it is now so clearly seen 
that no breeder of intelligence is misled by it. 

All rules may have exceptions, but the general rule 
that "Like produces like or the likeness of some 
ancestor," is as well settled as is the truth of the multi- 
plication table. A number of breeders of exceptional 
ability and exceptional opportunities have had phenom- 
enal success in some seeming departures from the 
principle of this rule, as Governor Stanford in his use 
of Electioneer upon thoroughbred mares, but it must 
be kept in mind that in his power to impart the trotting 
gait to his progeny. Electioneer stands alone. The fact 
is also important that Governor Stanford had a very 
large number of thoroughbred mares from which he 
selected those which he bred to Electioneer. In choos- 
ing them he thoughtfully looked to the question of 
size, conformation, disposition and gait, regarding the 
last two qualities as of the utmost importance. He 
saw clearlj" certain deficiencies in the trotter which he 
believed would be remedied by a thoroughbred cross, 
and the production of Sunol, Palo Alto and Arion 
justified his theory; the first two having thoroughbred 
dams, and the dam of the last being also very highly 
bred. The same thing has been done by Senator Rose, 
and Mr. Alexander, of Woodburn Farm. The young 
breeder may ask. Was not this a departure from the 



THE TBOTTEB 77 

rule that like produces like? I answer, No. The 
trotter lacked certain qualities, or did not have them 
to the degree found in the thoroughbred, among which 
were courage, or never -say -die gameness, such as has. 
made a racer run out a finish on a broken leg, sound- 
ness of limb, the perfection of lung and heart action 
and intelligence. 

All these are essential in the make-up of the fast 
trotter, and the resort to the blood of the thoroughbred 
to get them was but an intelligent application of the 
great rule in breeding. The rule to guide the average 
breeder in the production of a trotter is to breed a 
fast trotting- mare to a fast trotting- stallion. Many 
other things should be considered to insure desirable- 
qualities aside from mere speed, among which are purity 
of gait, size, beauty, color, soundness, disposition, etc.. 
It is but stating the rule in another form to say, have 
in the sire and dam the qualities you wish in the foal. 
Unsoundness of every form should be avoided, as in 
nine cases out of ten the unsoundness is hereditary and 
will reappear in the progeny, and in the tenth case the 
weakness that produced it is probably due to inheri- 
tance. Contracted feet, in a giv^n case, may be im- 
mediately due to neglect or bad shoeing, while the 
primary cause is a natural tendency to that infirmity, 
inherited from sire or dam. The same may be said of 
crooked or curby hocks, spavins, ring-bones and other 
forms of unsoundness. No one can afford to use 
animals so affected for breeding purposes, no matter 
how desirable they may be in other respects; as vicea 
and defects are more easily reproduced than good 



78 THE HORSE 

qualities. Above nearly all things, choose for both sire 
and dam, a pure-gaited trotter, for the gait of the ideal 
trotting -horse is as the swing of the pendulum. A 
trotter should carry his toe -weights in his head. When 
Lou Dillon trotted a mile in 1:58% she covered more 
than forty -four and a half feet to the second. How 
plainly this points to the importance of perfect trotting 
action! The foregoing rules apply not only to the 
breeding of trotters for the track, but for all purposes. 
The farmer, mechanic or other man of small means, not 
a professional breeder, cannot expect, with his limited 
opportunities, to produce grand circuit flyers, for under 
the best conditions they are accidents; but by adherence 
to the course here given he can breed, with reasonable 
certainty, handsome, sound and speedy trotters for 
carriage and light wagon, and also desirable coachers. 
Horses of this kind should be of good color, — bay, 
brown, black or sorrel. As a rule, bay or brown horses 
command the best prices; grays and roans do not sell 
well. Beauty and style of movement are qualities 
highly prized. Roadsters and coachers should have a 
higher, bolder action in front than is usually found in 
the fast trotter; and this quality, like all others, should 
be sought in the sire and the dam. 

THE PACING -HORSE 

Regarding the origin and history of the pacer 
previous to the last thirty years, nothing need be 
said additional to what is given in the pages devoted 
to the trotter. Until a comparatively recent period. 



THE PAGER 79 

pacers were chiefly used fur saddle purposes. It 
sometimes happened that individual animals showed 
much speed, and, when possessed of a considerable 
portion of the blood of the thoroughbred horse, had 
the stamina and bottom to go races of one-, two- 
and three-mile heats. However, for racing purposes 
the pacer played an unimportant part, and when 
horse -back riding ceased as a custom, pacers were 
rarely seen. Persons unskilled in horsemanship may 
wonder that pacers should not meet the requirements 
for road- horses, both for pleasure and utility. For 
this there are many substantial reasons. For mere 
speed on a track, or very smooth road, the pace is a 
shade faster than the trot. This is the only thing 
that can be said in favor of the pacer as a driver. 
In no other quality can he rank with the trotter. In 
considering him as a horse for pleasure-driving, it 
should be observed that as a type he lacks beauty of 
form, having, as a rule, poorer quarters and a ten- 
dency to upright shoulders and a sloping rump. He 
does not often have a proud carriage of the tail, and 
goes with a low head. In general bodily conforma- 
tion he is decidedly inferior to the trotter. The high, 
bold action which so charms the eye is impossible to 
the pacing movement. A pair of pacers as coachers 
would be an absurdity. It may be asked why pacers 
would not do for the saddle. It must be remembered 
that the old-fashioned pacer or raciker, once popular 
as a riding- horse, had a broken gait like some of the 
easy movements of the modern saddle -gaited horse. 
The present-day pacer has a true pacing gait, and is 



80 THE HORSE 

the worst possible horse under saddle. These con- 
siderations have such weight in the judgment of 
horse -owners that the porportion of trotters to pacers 
throughout the United States is fully one hundred to 
one; this, notwithstanding the general prevalency of 
pacing on the race -tracks. 

Within the last twenty-live years great advances 
have been made by pacing- horse breeders, and an 
animal has been produced with which the old-time 
pacer is not worthy of comparison. These breeders 
had in mind the creation of a type of fast and game 
pacers for racing on the track. This was the chief 
purpose they had in view, and their wisdom is shown 
by their success. They did not attempt to make of 
the pacer a road- or general driving- horse, or a 
saddler, but aimed solely at his improvement as a 
racing animal. As a result the pacing record has 
been lowered below the two -minute mark by the follow- 
ing named horses: Dan Patch, 1:56, by Joe Patchen, 
2:01%, Prince Alert, 1:57, and Star Pointer, 1:59%, 
by Brown Hal, 2:12%. Among pacers whose 
records are close to two minutes are Little Boj^ 
2:01%; Anaconda, 2:01%; Coney, 2:02, and a great 
many others. 

An analysis of the pedigrees of the great pacers 
will show that the highest results have come from the 
use of sires that were themselves fast pacers. The rule 
of intelligent breeders is to have for both sire and 
dam ptire-gaited pacers with speed and endurance. 
Soundness and other plainly necessary qualities are, 
of course, not ignored. 



82 THE HORSE 

It is true that the fast pacer of to-day carries a 
large proportion of the blood of the thoroughbred, 
which is an indispensable part of his make-up, but 
no breeder would now resort to a further thorough- 
bred cross. At one time a class of theorists advo- 
cated the production of fast trotters and pacers by a 
continual crossing of trotters and pacers, but it is 
now only remembered as an amusing vagary. As an 
illustration of what follies a spirit of controversy may 
lead an otherwise sane man into, the case may be 
cited of a prominent writer on breeding topics fifteen 
or twenty years ago, who used to argue that pacing 
and trotting were ^Hivo different manifestations of the 
same gait." 

While all must admit the success of the effort to 
breed fast pacers for tlie track, it cannot be con- 
tended that in point of usefulness it could not claim 
higher credit were the pacer more suited to the gen- 
eral wants of the people. The highest art of the 
breeder may alike be shown in the production of 
tumbler pigeons and beef cattle, while the importance 
of the work will allow of no comparison. A parallel 
is found in the vast rivalry among naval architects 
in the endeavor to produce the fastest sailing yacht 
whose use is confined to the cup races. 

It seems to be demonstrated that the pace is nat- 
urally a faster gait than the trot, to the extent of 
several seconds in the mile. The reason for this is an 
interesting question. The record of Dan Patch (Fig. 
12), the champion pacer, is 1:56, while that of Lou 
Dillon, the fastest trotter, is 1:58%, two and a half 



THE PACER 



83 



seconds slower. Most horsemen will agree that there 
is that amount of difference in the natural speed 
of the two methods of locomotion. The mechanical 
difference is that the pacer at speed strikes the ground 




Fia. 12. Dan Patch, 1:56 
Holder of the world's pacing record 

simultaneously with the fore and hind feet on 
the same side, while the trotter puts them down 
alternately. Instantaneous photographs of trotters 
at speed show that no two feet are on the ground 
at the same time. From these considerations it 
seems clear that in the pacing movement the play 



84 TEE HOBSE 

of the muscles is more smooth and free, thus conduc- 
ing to increased speed. This greater freedom and 
harmony of muscular action is probably an important 
factor. The pacer also has an advantage in the sim- 
ultaneous planting of both feet on the same side, for 
the reason that he can make the freest possible stride 
without fear of the hind foot catching the front one. 
A great danger to a trotting -horse in racing is the 
cutting of his quarters by treading on them with the 
hind foot, and the horse knows it. When the animal 
is propelling his body forward at the rate of more 
than forty feet to the second, the interval between 
the raising of the fore foot and the following move- 
ment of the hind foot is but the flash of an eye. A 
man when running very swiftly instinctively exercises 
his utmost alertness to guard against a fall. Is it not 
reasonable to believe that a trotter when going twice 
as fast may also feel the necessity from his more 
complicated gait of modifying his speed in a degree, 
for self protection? These observations are not based 
on the ideas expressed by other writers, but it is 
believed they give the most rational way of account- 
ing for the difference in speed between the pacer and 
the trotter. 

It may be thought by some that the pacer may 
ultimately become popular as a driver when, by 
reason of the country being older, our highways will 
be improved. This is very unlikely to occur, as in 
European countries having the finest possible roads 
he is practically unknown. 

Within the last ten years has become quite prev- 



THE PACER 85 

alent the reprehensible practice of driving horses 
wearing hopples in pacing races. Broken -gaited 
horses that will neither pace nor trot naturally, but 
have some speed, will be put in strong leather hop- 
ples, where it is impossible for them to go at any 
other gait than the pace, and in that way compelled 
to pace, often being unmercifully punished the greater 
part of the course. This practice should be prohibited 
by law. On many race -courses hoppled horses are 
not allowed to compete. It is very dangerous to 
drivers, as a tired horse in hopples is liable to fall. 
Numerous deaths of men and horses have occurred 
from such accidents. It is also injurious to the breed- 
ing interests, for many foul-gaited pacing stallions 
have taken low records while driven in hopples, which 
are worthless for breeding purposes. They may be 
taken to places where they are unknown and acquire 
custom in the stud on the strength of a record which 
is, in reality, fraudulent. 



CHAPTER VI 



THE AMERICAN SADDLER 



Adapted largely from the best modern authorities on "The 
American Saddler," for use in the class-room. 

The first use made of the horse by man was for 
riding bareback. Later he was furnished with the 
saddle. This noble animal was first used in war long 
before he became employed in peaceful industry. Even 
after he was used in harness, his first connection with 
it was in drawing chariots of war. These ancient 
war-horses were a great factor in molding history. 
The decline of Rome was partly due to the horseman- 
ship of the Huns, who originated in the country 
north of the Chinese wall, and whose barbaric hordes 
poured over the Empire. The Arabs were warlike and 
conquering because of their horses; where would the 
Boers have been if it were not for their active saddle 
ponies? 

Such has been the association between horse and 
man for so long a time that it is no wonder he should 
have inherited a love for the animal. 

In the northern United States, the winters are too 
cold for horseback riding and in summer the roads 
are better cared for than in the South; hence road 
horses became more common than saddlers and the road 
wagon more in evidence than the saddle. The running 

(86) 



FOUNDATION STOCK OF THE SADDLER 87 

horse, the foundation of the saddler, was always a special 
pet of the southerner, who was not driven to the use 
of the trotter by the strict puritan ideas of New 
England; hence the South, particulary Kentucky, is 
preeminently the home of the American saddler, form- 
erly called the Kentucky saddle-horse. When the 
pioneers went to that state, it was a choice between 
going on horseback or on foot, and practically every- 
body rode. In those old times there were no railroads, 
and the highways were too poor for wheel vehicles, so 
that the inhabitants w^ere compelled to use the saddle 
for traveling both short and long distances. But the 
saddlers of those days were not the high, stylish 
steppers of the present. 

Some of the best foundation horses came from 
Canada, where the pace, or ambling gait, has been most 
encouraged; while Virginia and the South Atlantic 
States have given more attention to race-horses. This 
type of Canadian horses is said to be a cross of early 
French stock with stallions brought from New York 
and New England, and combined the hardiness and 
perhaps gait of the former with the better size 
of the latter. About 1830, there were imported 
into Kentucky the thoroughbred and half-bloods 
from Virginia, and a few of the pacers from Can- 
ada. These were crossed, and produced a more use- 
ful animal for saddle purposes than any bred there 
before. It was found that certain strains of the thor- 
oughbred blood made the best cross with the pacers 
or any native strains, for the production of horses with 
saddle gaits. Those which were thus best suited for 



88 THE HORSE 

the purpose were selected and bred in and in. Espe- 
cially distinguished among these, and today the most 
famous, was Denmark, who had three sons notable 
under the saddle and winners in the show ring. Of 
these, Gaines' Denmark was the best, and stands at the 
head of a family. Wherever his blood reached, fine 
saddle and harness qualities resulted. Many of the 
best Canadian pacers were crossed with Denmark, and 
this mingling of thoroughbred, trotting blood and old 
"side wheelers" (pacers) was the foundation of the grace 
and gaits of the American saddler. The thoroughbred 
alone is too high -mettled, and the other strains are 
too plodding, and lacking in spirit. There are about a 
dozen good strains, but all "nick" best with the Den- 
marks, and they in turn "nick" with certain strains 
of the thoroughbred or running -horse. Denmark is 
to the saddler what Rysdzke's Hambletonian is to the 
trotter. His family is said to be of uniformly good 
size and constitution, of pleasing color and disposi- 
tion, with a fine high bearing and markedly prepo- 
tent powers. Besides the Denmark family, other fami- 
lies are coming into use, such as CabelPs Lexington 
(a Morgan strain), Dremon, Waxy, Eureka, Dillard 
and others. Cabell's Lexington and Dremon were 
progenitors of distinct family types, but both showed 
their Canadian blood in their heavy manes and tails. 
Dremon and John Waxey, son of Waxey, bore strong 
resemblance to the Canadian horse. With such com- 
posite blood, Kentucky early became famous for 
saddlers, which were equally good for harness. 

These horses are the product of the southern bri- 



KENTUCKY THE HOME OF THE SADDLEB 89 

die path, and have been thoroughly trained in gaits 
most comfortable to the rider and easy to the horse — 
the walk, trot, canter, running walk, fox trot and 
slow pace. Many gentlemen lived a good deal in the 
saddle, and gaits which the horse and rider could en- 
dure all day were necessary. The abrupt trot of the 
English hackney was not adapted to a warm climate, 
since it was hard on both horse and rider, and, though 
the "side wheeler" had an easy gait, he lacked in grace, 
hence the special saddle gaits were evolved. 

During and following the civil war, Kentucky led 
in the breeding of saddle-horses. The superiority of 
the southern horse is shown by the fact that, for two 
years during the war, the northern cavalry was far 
inferior to that of the Confederates. Before and after 
the war, many stallions went to Tennessee, Missouri 
and Illinois. Missouri got the most, and is now nearly 
equal to Kentucky in the number and quality of her 
saddle horses, and manj^ are now also being bred in 
Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia and Texas. 

The first saddle-horse came by chance rather than 
by design; but experience with runners and trotters 
has taught the Kentuckians that to get an animal to 
be relied on for a highly specialized use, it must be 
bred for that use. This is a cardinal principle in sad- 
dle-horse breeding now, and, without it, such breed 
of gaited horses would be impossible. In 1891, the 
National (now American) Saddle-Horse Breeders' Asso- 
ciation was organized to recover from the debris of 
the trotting wreck the good qualities of the saddle. 
The president of the Association is General John 



90 TEE HORSE 

B. Castlemaii, whose saddle -mare, Emily, took first 
prize at the World's Fair in 1893 and created a^ sensa- 
tion at Madison Square Garden a little later. The third 
volume of the register has recently been issued. 

So much for the history of the American saddler. 
Now let us look at the characteristics of this remark- 
able breed. They are fine and harmonious — "all points" 
and stylish — are hardy and very enduring if given 
proper care, but are easy to abuse; docile, courageous, 
proud and good-tempered if treated gently. They 
instantly resent ill-treatment with whip or spur, or by 
a rough groom. 

A first-class saddle -stallion should be 15% to 16% 
hands high; in color, a bay, black, brown, red sor- 
rel and light or dark chestnut. The surpassing beauty 
and greatness of Denmark seems to be handed down 
chiefly through his sons and sons of sons of black 
color. I regard Montrose (a bay) the pattern saddle- 
horse of the past twenty j^ars; but it has been left to 
Black Squirrel, whose sire was Black Eagle to produce 
a type distinctly his own and that has never been 
approached, except by two of his sons, for grandeur 
and beauty. Dappled dark gray is allowed, but it is 
not desired. The coat is fine and silky and the 
mane of medium weight — not too coarse or too heavy. 
The tail comes out high on the rump and is carried 
high with a full sweep. The head is small and fine, 
with a mild, intelligent expression. The eyes are not 
deep -set, but lively, without showing much white. 
Ears erect and not too far apart, and held in place 
without lopping while in motion. The neck is arched 



A GOOD BUSIJy^ESS HORSE 91 

gracefully from deep oblique shoulders, and the head 
carried high with perpendicular face, yet without 
breaking the line of curvature from the withers to 
the fore -top. The withers are narrow rather than 
broad and flat, and rise gently from the shoulder. 
The barrel is round and carried full back to the hips 
on both top and bottom lines. The top line is short 
and the bottom line relatively long. The legs are 
unusually fine, hard and flat with smooth and not 
too large joints. Pasterns are medium in length and 
moderately oblique, and the feet are usually high and 
wide at the heel. 

The southern saddler has been bred for the rider's 
comfort, and, while he can gallop with a fine, open 
stride, and jump well, his peculiar merit is in what 
in the North are called artificial gaits, but what in the 
South are called natural gaits. The rack is the most 
laborious to the horse of all the five gaits and no horse 
can keep it up for more than a few miles without great 
fatigue. The running walkers cover six to eight miles 
an hour with great freedom from motion to the rider. 
An easy gait is necessary when the saddle takes the 
place of wheels. Contrary to the general impression, 
this gait is not tiresome to the horse, for he can 
go all day, and every day, with ease. There are two 
kinds of gaited saddlers, one a stylish, high -headed, 
spirited animal, going "in the air," and popular in 
cities and for park riding where show is desired; the 
other a level,* smooth-going, swift road-horse for 
business men, doctors, sheriffs and farmers. 

A first-class saddle-horse is expected to go at 



92 



THE HOUSE 



command, six or eight different gaits. There are sev- 
eral fancy gaits besides, which are modifications of the 
others, and depend upon the conformation of the horse 
and handling of the reins bj^ a skilled rider. The fol- 




FiG. 13. Montgomery Chief. Rhythmical motion 

lowing gaits are recognized for entry in the American 
Saddle Horse Register: walk, trot, rack, canter, run- 
ning walk, or fox trot, or slow pace. The walk, trot, 
pace and canter need no description 

The fox trot is a broken trot in "which the fore 
foot touches the ground an instant in advance of the 
diagonal hind foot. It has the slowest limits of the 



GAITS OF THE SADDLER 93 

artificial gaits and can be kept up all day. It has 
four to six miles an hour rate, and is the utility gait 
of the general saddle-horse, and all are supposed to 
have it. A loose rein is always used, and the horse is 
apt to carry his head low. 

The running walk is also a modification of the trot; 
but in" this case the head is carried higher, and the 
hind foot touches the ground just in advance of the 
diagonal forefoot, breaking the concussion. A closer rein 
is held than with the fox trot, and the pace is faster, 
even up to a three -minute gait, before the horse is 
forced out of it. It is a more showy gait than the 
fox trot and gives a horse more of a climbing action 
in front. The feet take the ground in the same order 
as a walk, and it is a "walk on a run," if such a thing 
is possible. 

The rack is a modified pace in which the hind foot 
touches the ground before the leading fore foot. It 
has a wide range of speed, from four miles an hour 
to a three -minute gait. It is suited to the side-saddle 
and is a favorite with ladies. Gentlemen do not like 
it so well as the fox trot, though it makes a good 
business gait. The rack is not an all -day gait. It is 
more readily taken to by horses with a pacing ten- 
dency. 

The singlefoot is intermediate between a trot and 
a pace. Each foot moves independently of either of 
the others, and the same interval of time elapses 
between each footfall. It is usually not less than ten 
miles per hour, up to a three-minute gait. It is the 
smoothest of all gaits, because that part of the body 



94 'J^SE HORSE 

supporting the saddle glides evenly forward, and there 
is no bounding or jolting. These four, with the natural 
gaits, are the most frequently used. 

To do any of the gaits well, the horse should have 
what is called "shoulder action" as indicated by deep, 
oblique shoulders. These saddle-horses can be taught 
to go the eastern high -school gaits of the walk, trot 
and canter type, if such perversion of taste is desired. 
They are also fine roadsters and do not show their 
saddle gaits in harness. Contrary to general impres- 
sions, such use does not lessen their value as saddlers 
or make them forget their gaits. 

The Englishman knows but three gaits on the 
road, — the walk, trot and canter. But in the South 
the warm climate has necessitated the easier gaits. 
The American saddler has not been popular in New 
York and other eastern cities. It requires skill 
to keep the gaited horse, and he is more expensive 
than the hackney. The Englishman has the best 
hunter, but the American breeds the best saddle- 
horse in the world. 

We are now far from using the saddle-horse en- 
tirely for war. For power, he is giving place to steam 
and electricity; but, as the world progresses and becomes 
more wealthy, the saddle-horse will be popular as the 
most delightful means of locomotion and exercise, and 
of peaceful, restful and inspiring pastime. 

See page 332 for illustration of "A saddler at rest," which by over- 
sight was left out of this chapter. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE COACH -HORSE 

So manj^ horses that do not belong to the true coach- 
horse type are called " coachers " and bought and sold 
as such that it is no wonder the farmer has no clear 
conception of the true "coacher," which always finds 
a ready market at long prices. If a horse is 16% hands 
high or more, long of neck and leg and rather slim 
in the body, he is at once pronounced a "coacher," 
although he may be nothing but an overgrown weedy 
carriage -horse. The coacher should indeed be above the 
average height and should have longish neck and legs, 
but there are many other qualities and characteristics 
which must be possessed if the animal meets all the 
demands of the intelligent purchaser. 

Perhaps a clearer mental photograph of the real 
coacher may be secured if the work which he is called on 
to do in the city is considered. It should be remembered, 
first of all, that coachers are designed for drawing 
coaches, not light carriages or road -wagons. The coach 
may weigh from ten to fourteen hundred pounds and 
the load, six to eight persons, may increase the weight 
by eight to twelve hundred pounds. The total weight of 
eighteen to twenty- six hundred pounds is carried on 
relatively small, rigid wheels which tend to greatly 
increase draft if the roadway is roughly paved. It is 

(95) 



96 TSE HORSE 

considered not good form to drive the genuine coacher 
fast; yet it is none of our concern tliat the coacher is 
sometimes used as a means of conspicuous display. As 
the coach rolls through the parks with aristocratic slow- 
ness, the turnout reveals to the onlookers the wealth of 
the occupants, their freedom from harassing financial 
solicitude and the enjoyable leisure which so often 
comes to the American as the fruit of a strenuous suc- 
cessful business career. 

Modern conditions make demands for two distinct 
classes of high-priced horses. In a previous chapter the 
trotter and the roadster have been fully treated, there- 
fore we may devote all our attention to the coacher. 
Bear in mind that these two classes of horses approach 
each other closely, and even overlap in their less perfect 
forms. 

The coacher, it has been said, should be above the 
average height, with long, slim, flexible neck set on 
the corner of the body and not on the end of it, like 
a pig's. The neck should be all-embracing where it 
joins the body, that both beautj^ and power to hold 
the head high without fatigue may be secured. 
Horses with good necks properly set, when moving 
usually slack the check-rein, if not reined too high, 
and will carry their heads loftily without being checked 
up. Many an otherwise fine coacher, if checked high, 
becomes a "star gazer," especially with an overdraw, — 
that is, extends the nose upward until the face is 
nearly in a line with the neck; whereas, in a natural 
and easy condition, the head should be carried nearly 
at a right angle with the neck. It is really dis- 



DESCRIPTION OF A CO AC HER 97 

tressing to see an imperfect neck checked up far 
above its capacity. This has led to unqualified con- 
demnation of the overdraw check or, in fact, of checks 
in any form. (For a full discussion of harness, see 
Chapter XXII.) If a coacher has the ideal head and 
neck, many slight deficiencies of body may be over- 
looked. A tall, longish- necked horse not infrequently 
has a long, somewhat depressed back, which is objec- 
tionable. If the lofty neck, slim and flexible at the 
throat- latch, symmetrically attached to the shoulder of 
a selected dam, can be united in the foal with the 
strong, short back of the sire, much will have been 
accomplished toward producing a valuable coacher. 
(See Breeding, Chapter XIII.) But, "over all," the 
coacher must have good length, though if it be too 
great, especially if the back be too long, endurance 
and spirit are likely to be lacking. The legs, like 
the neck, should be flexible and long rather than short, 
with high action rather than long reach. While the old 
saying that "a coacher should travel with his knees 
in his throat -latch and his feet in a bushel basket" 
is so exaggerated as to lose force, still it helps to 
emphasize the fact tliat coachers should have high 
knee and hock action, in which case the reach will 
not be long. The coacher is not designed so much 
for speed as for display, coupled with hard work for 
short periods. The coacher should have courage and 
staying power, for it will require both if the proud, 
high, elastic trot is to be maintained for two or three 
consecutive hours over rough pavements with a load 
suited to a light pair at a walk. 

G 



98 THE HOBSE 

The coach -horse may be less rotund than the hack- 
ney. He is usually kept plump, even fat; but, if he 
has naturally the rotund pony form, he is likely to 
become sluggish and unresponsive. There is a vast 
difference between the pudgy build of most ponies 
and the longer, graceful lines of a well-formed 
coacher. Then, too, a fairly long- bodied horse need 
not of necessity have a long back. It is frequently 
said that no horse should have a long back. This is 
only relatively true. What really is meant is that the 
top line (back) should be short as compared with the 
bottom line (belly). Then, too, there is a marked dif- 
ference between a thick, piglike neck and one that is 
strongly attached to the shoulders. While the neck of 
a coacher should be rather long and thin, it should 
have a high, firm seating on the shoulders and taper 
rapidly toward its intersection with the head. The 
demand is for smooth, rather long, flowing outlines. 
Horses of pudgy build or with ragged hips or angu- 
lar conformation are not wanted. An arched, flowing, 
full tail, good feet and symmetrical limbs are indis- 
pensable. 

When all is summed up, color has much to do with 
the price, and indicates to some extent, it is believed, 
quality and endurance, although superior horses are 
sometimes found with faded light colors and undesirable 
markings. Dark hoofs are, as a rule, tougher and bet- 
ter than light-colored ones. Seal browns, bright unfad- 
ing bays, with strong well-defined black or dark points, 
are always in fashion and are to be preferred to all other 
colors. Blacks seldom hold their color when exposed to 



STYLE AND SIZE 99 

snn and rain. It is said that a black horse looks smaller 
than he really is and a dappled gray larger. Black 
horses are desirable for undertakers perhaps, but they 
are too suggestive of that particular trade to be in 
demand for private use. 

Piebald and peculiarly marked animals sometimes 
sell well, but they are difficult to breed; that is, they are 
sports rather than the product of a well-defined variety 
or breed; "Calico horses," and sorrels with light - 
colored manes and tails, find their best market in South 
America, where they are especially admired by the Span- 
ish Americans. Most of this class of coachers belong 
properly in the carriage class, as they are seldom large 
enough for heavy coaching. As yet, few true coachers 
are bred in the United States. Many fine carriage- 
horses and roadsters are produced, and the larger ones 
serve fairly well for the lighter coaches but they seldom 
have the size requisite to give the turnout the stately 
front necessary to prevent the coach from appearing 
too large and lofty for the team. A large coach with 
an elevated front seat and a tall driver has the effect 
of making the horses look smaller than they are. We 
judge most things by comparison. The expert horse- 
man not infrequently exhibits his horse hitched to a 
low-wheeled sulky, phaeton or road- wagon, which has 
the effect of making the horse appear larger than he 
really is. Animals of all kinds exposed at public auction 
are sometimes placed on higher ground than the bidders, 
for the purpose of making the animals appear large. 
Even the complete lowering of the carriage-top seems 
to increase the size of the horse hitched to the vehicle. 



LofC. 



100 THE HORSE 

All outline of the work required of a coach-horse and 
a brief description of the horse that is likely to bring 
the highest prices have been given, and it only remains 
to be said that it is difficult to produce large, 
symmetrical coac^hers of the true type with high action 
coupled with the requisite courage and endurance. 
For some time to come, the true coacher is likely to 
be high-priced and difficult to procure in large 
numbers. Medium and small coachers are more easily 
produced than the large ones, but they bring less in 
the market. However, it may be said that they have 
a far wider range of customers, since the medium and 
small coachers may serve well for the double carriage, 
the phaeton or for family driving to either a one- or a 
two-seater. 

Three quite common varieties or breeds of horses 
are now used in the production of coachers. Among 
the oldest of these is the Cleveland Bay. Ample 
material for the discussion of the origin and merits 
of the Cleveland Bay may be found in the Journals 
and stud-books. It is sufficient to say here that very 
little is positively known of the origin or breeding of 
most of the foundation stock. 

The Cleveland bay has man 3^ of the coacher char- 
acteristics. The best specimens are good-sized, rangey, 
symmetrical and of good color — bright bay. When 
first introduced into America, it was said that he 
lacked staying power. That may have been true once, 
but probably is not so now. It should be remembered 
that, after the breed had attained prominence in Eng- 
land and after many specimens had been imported 



FOUNDATION STOCK 101 

into the United States, it was neglected, and it was 
not until after 1865 that the remnants of the breed 
were hunted up and used as foundation stock for 
what might be called the improved Cleveland Bay ^ 




Permission of F. S. Peer 
Flu. 14. A good coacher 

If the reader is interested in foundation stock, he 
may first inspect the horse under consideration; if pos- 
sible, find out something in detail of its immediate 
ancestry. If there is progeny, it also should be crit- 

^See Cleveland Bay Stud-Book, "Retrospection Volume," Sep- 
tember 1884. For American stud-books, see appendix. 



102 THE HOBSE 

ically studied. If the animal under consideration is 
good, if his or her progeny is satisfactory and if the 
ancestors for two or three generations are of good 
repute, one need not be afraid to purchase although 
nothing of the breeding of the remote paternal ancestor 
may be known. Other things being equal, a long pedi- 
gree is better than a short one; but a short pedigree and 
an animal of known prepotency is better than a com- 
monplace one with a long pedigree "tailed" by one or 
two noted animals bred fifty to seventy-five years ago. 

Description and Characteristics. — Color, bright bay, 
may be either light or dark; black mane and tail; black 
points; usually a small white spot between the "bulbs" 
of one or more of the heels; size, sixteen to seventeen 
hands; weight, 1,100 to 1,300 pounds. Head symmetrical, 
with kindly expression and intelligent cast of face; neck 
long and arched and well set on sloping shoulders. 
Back usually of good length and form; legs clean, of 
good length and symmetrically set on the body; feet 
and lower part of legs dark -colored, and fetlocks free 
from long hair. Sometimes the Cleveland is too light 
in weight for high -class coachers. 

A printed description of a horse never fully satisfies 
the young, progressive horseman, although it may serve 
to assist the beginner in distinguishing one breed from 
another which is similar. A horse may fill the above 
description fairly well and yet be so deficient in action 
and courage and so unresponsive to the rein that all 
his other qualities fail to redeem him from the common 
herd. He is simply an unresponsive beauty. The 
moving, living horse must be studied before an accurate 



BREEDING CO AC HERS 103 

conception can be secured of what style, symmetry, 
harmonious motion and even-tempered high courage 
are. 

THE TROTTER AS A SIRE OF COACHERS 

Now and then a large trotting -bred stallion begets 
stjdish coachers when bred to suitable mares. (See 
chapter on Breeding.) In fact, many coachers up to 
about 1875 were so produced. Soon after the war of 
1861-65 an unusual demand arose for coachers, and 
the market soon demanded better horses, or, rather, far 
better prices were received for really superior coachers 
than had formerly been realized. The rapid increase 
in wealth during the last quarter of the 19th century 
has made it possible to sell really good coachers at 
double and triple the prices secured for them in early 
years. This demand not only stimulated the importa- 
tion of both English and French coach stallions, but 
also the breeding of coachers from large trotting sires 
and large symmetrical mares having a dash, at least, 
of thoroughbred blood. In fact, some good coachers 
have been produced by this method of breeding. It is 
unexplainable why the lovers of horses did not, when 
the demand arose for coachers, select and systemati- 
cally unite the good blood already possessed in the 
large trotter and beautiful mixed -blooded mares. With 
such animals as foundation stock, a few generations 
of skilful breeding, coupled with judicious but liberal 
feeding, would have produced a coacher of sufficient 
size to meet the most exacting demands, and of superior 
endurance, style and courage. It is not yet too late 



104 THU nORSH 

to produce an American coacher, if we can be weaned 
from the notion that, of necessity, everything imported 
has quality and value above the home production. 
Out of the thoroughbred and selected superior mixed- 
blooded road -mares has been developed in America 
a superb, unequaled, utilitarian and pleasure -giving 
animal, unexcelled in any other country. From the 
same blood and by similar methods, in less time and 
at far less expense and pains than have been incurred 
in producing the trotter, a potent breed of coacher 
might have been produced. Sooner or later it will 
have to be done, or rather it will be done; and then 
an imported coacher will be as rare as imported Merino 
sheep, or an imported steam -locomotive. 

It may be said, the fact that Europeans are pur- 
chasing large numbers of horses in America for 
cavalry mounts and other army purposes proves con- 
clusively that manj^ good sires and dams, usually of 
mixed blood, are possessed by American farmers. As 
these pages are being written, it is reported that 
nearly 20,000 army horses have been shipped from 
New Orleans to South Africa for war purposes during 
the last two months. It would seem that while we have 
good foundation stock for the production of cavalry- 
horses, we are importing Demi-Sang cavalry-stallions 
from France to be used for siring coachers. If, then, the 
largest and best of French cavalry -stallions are suitable 
for producing coachers, why can not the largest and best 
of the American Demi-Sangs, or mixed -bloods, also be 
used for producing coachers? Since they are virtually of 
the same lineage, — that is, they have a liberal infusion 



DEMI -SANG 105 

of " warm " or oriental blood liberally mixed with good 
but unknown or nondescript blood. 

THE FRENCH COACH — DEMI -SANG ( HALF-BLOOD ) 

Some of the European governments find difficulty 
in securing enough suitable horses for mounting 
cavalry and for other array uses. Because of this 
shortage some governments, notably the French, have 
given aid and encouragement to the horse breeders, 
especially those who were endeavoring to produce 
superior animals suited to such purposes. No claim 
is made that these horses are thoroughbred or even 
pure -bred. The same may be said of the American 
trotter. It appears that really very good and desir- 
able horses can be produced by uniting two good 
animals, though only one or neither are classed as 
pure -bred. They are simply Demi-Sangs, although 
without doubt the blood of the English thoroughbred 
(Orient) largely predominates. 

Some time during the last quarter of the eigh- 
teenth century, thoroughbred stallions were introduced 
into France from England. The services of these 
horses and the best of their get were offered at low 
rates to breeders of this class of stock. A bonus was 
granted by the Government to owners of superior 
stallions, on the condition that the stallions so sub- 
sidized should remain in the country for service. All 
stallions advertised for service had to be approved by 
the Government, and none but superior ones were sub- 
sidized. This Government control did not extend 



106 



THE EOBSE 




Fig. 15. French coach stallion Paladin, 1968 
Championship winner over all coach and carriage breeds, including hacknej'S, 
German coachers, trotters, thoroughbreds and Cleveland Bays. Chicago 
Horse Show, 1897. 

Bred, owned and now in service at Oaklawn Farm, 
Wayne, Du Page County, Illinois. 

throughout the couutry; hence the breeding of horses 
specifically for cavalry use was confined chiefly to the 
departments of Orne, Calvados and Seine -Inferieure. 
Bescription.— The color of the French coach -horse 
may be bay, chestnut or black, though bays are far 
the most common and universally selected by Ameri- 



SIZE OF CO AC Huns 107 

can importers. In weight they are nearly equal to 
the Cleveland, though usually not quite as tall. Their 
average weight ranges from 1,050 to 1,250 for stallions. 
The head is blood-like, small^ clean and expressive. 
The neck is only moderately long, well arched and 
symmetrically set on long, sloping shoulders. The 
back is short; hips moderately long and well up; legs 
of moderate length, clean, symmetrical; feet tough 
and well formed. The best specimens are so symmet- 
rical, the parts so harmonious, the movement so 
rhythmical, that one finds little to criticize except lack 
of size; and it may be a question whether the size 
can be much increased without developing some unde- 
sirable characteristics, especially coarseness. It is 
quite possible that it would be better to attempt to 
produce a little larger coaeher by coupling with large 
dams. The danger in this is that large dams are 
often coarse in make-up, and if the stallion should 
not be usually prepotent the outcome would be a 
coaeher lacking in symmetry. Be this as it may, the 
breeders are rightly making an effort to increase the 
size of this horse without diminishing his courage, 
his symmetry, style and endurance. 

It is probable that, in time, even better material for 
producing a variety of American coachers than is 
now found in the trotter may be secured from the 
get of these French horses. If the attempt is ever 
made, it should not take many generations in skilful 
hands to produce a breed. Some horsemen, whose 
opinions have much weight, contend that the Cleve- 
land bay and French coachers are large enough for 



108 THE HOUSE 

coachers since so many streets now present smooth, 
well -graded surfaces, and since the art of building 
strong light vehicles by using steel and wood in 




By ptrmission " Rider and Driver " 

Fig. 1G. Imported German coach stallion 
Property of J. Crouch & Son, Lafayette Stock Faim, Lafayette, Ind. 

the most scientific combinations has been acquired, 
the effort should be to lighten the weight and draft 
of the coach rather than to increase the size of the 
coacher. But the fact still remains that large coachers, 



THJS GERMAN COACH HOBSE 109 

other things being equal , sell for more than do those 
of medium size. 

No other breeds or varieties of horses other than 
those mentioned above have attracted wide attention 
as progenitors of coachers. For a more detailed dis- 
cussion of coachers, consult the authors mentioned in 
the bibliography. 

The German coach, since the World's Fair held at 
Chicago, 1893, has had some admirers, and there are 
now good specimens of them in the United States. 
Here we have a horse which fills the requirements as 
to size and color. In studying them closely, I fre- 
quently heard the following remark: "They are large 
and fine, but they lack somewhat that spring}- and 
easy action so much admired in coachers." Mj own 
impression was that thej^ did not possess these char- 
acteristics as fall\' as desired. Notwithstanding these 
criticisms, I confidently believe that the German 
coach is likely to produce a superior eoachei- when 
bred to mares of suitable size and t\'pe, that is, to 
those having a liberal infusion of warm blood coupled 
with the indescribable finish, form and action some- 
times found in mares of mixed blood, not infrequently 
described as "good road-mares," of great endurance 
and efficient service anj^where except at heavy draft. 

The accompanying cut is that of a horse whose 
make-up is emphatically of the large coach type. 
Slightly modified to suit American tastes, this breed 
should find quick recognition in the large cities. For 
further particulars, consult German Coach Horse Stud- 
Book: also J. Crouch & Sons, Lafayette. Indiana. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE HACKNEY 

This breed of horses, recently introduced into the 
United States, has attracted marked attention. The 
hackney has a peculiarlj' striking and pleasing appear- 
ance difficult to describe. His chief charms consist in 
high action, unusual symmetry and snap. Though 
not so speedy as the trotter nor so well adapted to 
equestrianism as the American saddle-horse, nor so 
good for moving heavy loads as the draft-horse, yet he 
fills a useful place not occupied by any other breed. 
He is stout, active, sure-footed, courageous and pos- 
sessed of a good constitution and a lovely temper. A 
good specimen of this breed satisfies the eye, whether 
he be viewed from the ground, the road -wagon or the 
saddle. His neck is well set on, all-embracing where 
it meets the shoulders, arched and long enough to be 
beautiful. The head is clean and intelligent, the ears 
small and attractive. The back is ideal for the work 
usually demanded of him, being short and strong, 
while the hind quarters are long and powerful. The 
legs and feet appear slightly larger in proportion to 
size than do the speedier trotters', yet they are far 
from being coarse or draft-like. His limbs are flexible 
and are set on the body symmetrically. 

The illustration (Fig. 17) shows a typical specimen 

(110) 



ORIGIN OF THE HACKNEY 



111 



of the breed aud gives a better idea of the distinguish- 
ing characteristics than could be secured from an 
elaborate description. Not much is known specifically 
of the origin of the hackney. Johnson's Dictionary 
describes a hackney as being a hired horse. In early 




Fig. 17. Imported Cadet (1251) 10 Y. Chestnut stalliou, foaled 1884 

Bred by Hy. Moore, Esq., England. Owned by A. J. Cassatt, Esq., Chester- 
brook Farm, Berwyn, Pa. 

By Lord Derby, 2d 417. Dam 289 Princess, by Denmark. 1 Y Y 

days, before Macadam discovered the art of road- 
building, the highways of England were quite as bad 
as they are in America. At an early period, a hoi-se 
had been developed similar, in many respects, to the 
modern improved hackney. The men who kept horses 
for hire soon learned to purchase those of this type 
because it was found they were the best to carry heavy 
riders and to use on the post-chaise and stage coaches, 
since they had extreme endurance and pluck nnd were 
easily kept in good flesh. By a modern infusion of 



112 THE HORSE 

warm blood, his mental endowments have been greatly 
improved, and his action and spirit also, while at the 
same time the "staying qualities" of the breed have 
been preserved. 

There is some diversity of opinion as to the 
proper size of the hackne3'. Mr. Burdett Coutts is in 
favor of increasing the size by careful selection of 
sires and dams. Other expert breeders do not believe 
that the size can be increased without losing, to some 
extent, some of the valuable characteristics of the 
breed. I incline to the latter opinion; for the breed, 
if increased in size, would certainly either lose some 
of its snap and elastic force, or, in case these qualities 
were retained, the added weight would overtax the 
limbs. No animal with the high mettle and quick 
motion of the hackney can approach the weight of 
the draft-horse without being in danger of breaking 
down. An increase of weight implies, or should imply, 
a decrease in snap and quick movement. Of necessity, 
the horse of heavy weight should be somewhat phleg- 
matic in temperament, otherwise his limbs will soon 
give out. The old saying, "A good horse will wear 
out two sets of legs," is often true, and therefore a 
horse's limbs should never be overloaded by too heavy 
body weight. 

The hackney, when full grown, should be not far 
from fifteen hands high. If he is rather slim of body, 
one or two inches more may not be objectionable, but 
if inclined to be "stocky" then his height would 
better not exceed the standard indicated. 

Two hackneys, — Little Wonder, imported early in 



HACKNEYS IN FAVOR 



113 




Fig. 18. Champion hackney stallion and champion sire Fandango 443 
Winner of American Hackney Society's Challenge Cup, National Horse Show, 

New York, 1899-1900 
Owned by Frederick C. Stevens. Maplewood Stock Farm, Attica, N. Y. 

1883 by A. J. Cassatt, and Fashion, imported a year 
later by Prescott Lawrence, attracted wide attention. 
The hackney has grown into favor in recent years not 
only in the East bnt in the West as well. It is said 

H 



114 THE HOBSE 

that 181 hackney stallions were sold in England for 
exportation to the United States in the years 1888 to 
1890 inclusive, a majority of which were taken west 
of the Ohio river. At the present time, there are 
many breeders of the hackney of wide reputation. No 
pains have been spared to select the best animals of 
England for importation. Too often the importations 
from Europe of some classes of animals have not 
been up to the highest standards of their respective 
breed. Fortunate it is that so many superior and so 
few inferior stallions of this breed have been brought 
to the United States. The standard was set high at 
first by wealthy and distinguished horse breeders, and 
it has been rigidly maintained. The beneficial results 
of this policy are evident, for one seldom sees a hack- 
ney full-blood or half-blood that is "weedy" or 
undesirable. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE HUNTER 

Chapter by F. S. Peer 

The organization of many new hunt-clubs through- 
out the eastern states, during the last ten years, has 
greatly increased the demand for horses suitable for 
cross-country riding. The demand for high -class sad- 
dle-horses — other than the gaited horse of Kentucky — 
and ladies' and gentlemen's hacks (a horse for both 
riding and driving), has always been so poorly sup- 
plied that only comparatively few people who require 
them can be suited. The others must take up with 
trotting -bred horses, and other make -shifts that are 
poor substitutes, indeed, for the real thing. The breed- 
ing of the hunter is well within the range of the ordinary 
farmer. Many nondescript mares suitable, when coupled 
with good sires, for breeding hunters are already in the 
country, and might be utilized. 

The requirements in a saddle-horse, or hunter, are 
such that they are produced only by a special line of 
breeding, as we shall presently attempt to show. The 
prices paid for them would indicate that they bring a 
greater return for the money invested in the animals 
for producing them, than any other class of horses. 
This is especially the case with farmers of moderate 
means, and limited experience in breeding. Almost any 

(115) 



116 THE HORSE 

well-bred farm -mares of suitable conformation, — even 
grade draft -mares and such general -purpose animals 
as are found on all farms, — make very excellent 
broodmares for producing this class of animals. If, 
on account of injury or blemishes, these thoroughbred 
grades fail to sell for the purposes intended, still they 
are the very best horses a farmer can have on the 
place for light road- and for light farm -work. 

The one thing essential is to obtain the use of a 
thoroughbred (running- horse) for a sire. He may 
usually be secured at a ^moderate price from racing 
establishments. I refer to such horses as have become 
injured or incapacitated for track work, but arc still 
valuable for breeding purposes. 

BRLEDING HUNTERS AND SADDLE-HORSES 

Selection of Sire and Dam. — On account of his inborn 
qualifications for saddle work, the thoroughbred run- 
ning-horse is the only animal that is worth considering 
for a sire. Not only his low eb.stic action, but 
his general conformation distinguishes him from all 
other breeds of horses as the most suitable for horse- 
back riding. He has more intelligence, more courage 
and more endurance than any other breed of horses. 
The pure thoroughbreds are of a very nervous tempera- 
ment, and it often requires a bit of horsemanship to get 
on with them. The half- or three -quarter -bloods, how- 
ever, make the best all-round horse that it is possible to 
produce for hunting, ordinary saddle work, combination 
saddle and harness, cavalry, light artillery, or farm 



113 ^^^ HOUSE 

work, and I might add (barring action) light road work. 
The grade thoroughbreds have no equals; they can 
do any one, or all, of these things, and better than 
any other class, or family, or cross-bred animal that 
does not include thoroughbred blood. They will do all 
that any horse of their inches can, and then draw on 
their almost inexhaustible supply of energy — nerve 
force— to pull them through. This is my experience 
after j^ears of breeding, rearing and schooling horses 
of all sorts. Any man with horsemanship or "horse 
sense" enough to avoid abusing or fighting with them, 
will, if his experience is my own, say they have 
spoiled him forever for having any other horses about — 
except for heavy work. Of course, they are usually 
deficient in knee and hock action, which is so desirable 
in a high -class harness -horse. If they possessed it, 
however, they would become correspondingly less useful 
for saddle work. 

I believe it is not too much to say that, as a 
rule, two good half- or three -quarter -bred horses will 
do as much as three ordinary horses of equal weight, 
They are as useful on the farm as they are ornamental 
in the hunting field, and under saddle; they are as indis- 
pensable in a cavalry charge as they are graceful in 
carrying a lady for a ride in a park. They can pull a 
harrow or bring back a gun-carriage after all their cold- 
blooded relations have wilted and quit. So much for 
the blooded horse as a sire of high -class animals with 
courage and endurance, which qualifications are required 
in the hunter more than in any other class of horses. 

As to selection of suitable dams to breed to a thor- 



CHABACTEBISTICS OF THE HUNTER 119 

oughbred stallion, the mare should be, first of all, sound 
and free from vices. Defects are usually trans- 
mitted through or inherited from the dam. Mares with 
full and high sloping withers, which keep the saddle 
well back where it belongs and free of the shoulder 
blades, are most essential. Low, full withers permit the 
saddle to turn. A low or only medium up -carriage of 
the head is desirable. High -headed horses are very 
objectionable for hunters. A hunter or saddle-horse 
should carry the head so the eyes are about at the 
height of the withers. A ''park hack" may carry a 
higher head. A stout, broad loin, but not too short in 
the back or coupling, is best. A short back for a sad- 
dle-horse sounds all right theoretically, but practically 
it is not altogether desirable. A horse must have 
length of body, or he cannot stride away. Short mid- 
dle pieces usually accompany a correspondingly short, 
choppy gait, which is most uncomfortable for the rider. 
Hock and knee joints very large, even to coarseness, in 
the mares is very desirable. The true arm should be 
rather short and upright — the full sloping w^ithers 
keep the saddle well back on the upper line, but a 
short, upright true arm is even more essential, as it 
places the fore legs of the animal well forward of the 
saddle girths, which enables the rider to sit back over 
the horse's center of gravity. A long oblique true arm 
may bring the fore legs so far back as to move the 
center of gravity of the rider too far forward, which 
makes the horse labored in his gait, and increases mate- 
rially the chances of his falling or even turning a somer- 
sault on the landing side of a fence he is jumping. 



120 



THE HORSE 



The mare should have depth of body in the fore- 
qiiarters rather than breadth. Horses that are thick or 
wide throuo;h the heart, or with springing ribs, which 
are so desirable in harness -horses, are most uncomfor- 




FiQ. 20. Ontario 



Permission of Rider &• Driver 



table for saddle-work, as they spread the rider's legs too 
far apart. Again, horses too broad in the breast (fore 
legs wide apart ) are usually rough and rolling in their 
gait, which is also most objectionable. These are the 
principal features to be looked for and avoided in 
mating mares with a thoroughbred horse, for the pur- 
pose of getting high -class hunters, saddle-horses or 
hacks of endurance. 



HEADQUARTERS FOR HUNTERS 121 

In undertaking: this kind of breeding, it should be 
carried on as much as possible in communities, to 
attract buyers. The Province of Ontario, Canada; West 
Virginia and some sections of Missouri are the present 
headquarters for breeding this class of horses in Amer- 
ica. Many thousand dollars for horses go annually to 
these centers from all parts of the eastern states. 
There is a very promising field for any community 
of eastern farmers undertaking to breed this class of 
horses. The great reputation won by Canada in the 
harness- and saddle-horse markets of the world, and 
in supplying the very highest class of remounts for the 
British array, is owing to the extensive use of the 
"blood" horse in some sections of the Dominion. 
Within a radius of twenty -five miles of the City of 
Toronto, for instance, there were reported, in 1895, 
sixty -odd thoroughbred stallions in service principally^ 
almost entirely, to farm mares. 

It is not too much to say that the general use among 
farmers of thoroughbred sires in Canada has brought to 
that country the enviable reputation it now enjoys for 
breeding high -class horses both for saddle and harness, 
and that it has brought to our cousins across the lakes 
millions of American dollars that should have remained 
at home. 



CHAPTER X 

PONIES 

The breeds and varieties of ponies and small horses 
are numerous; even Asia and Africa possess many. 
Some are covered with hair which approaches bristles 
in coarseness and stiffness. Corsica had a breed of ponies 
as untamable as the zebra. It is said that the body 
length of the Asiatic horse about equals his height at 
the withers, while the body -length of the African horse 
is considerably less than his height. 

The pig has evidently sprung from two distinct 
groups, Siis scrofa, of Europe, and Sus Indicns, of Asia. 
Professor Low questions whether the African and the 
Asiatic horses have not also sprung from two species, 
or groups, originally radically different. However, it is 
probable that differences in altitude, food and environ- 
ment, and the time which has elapsed since the respective 
varieties were domesticated have furnished opportunity 
for variations to take place as wide as those noted. 
Moreover, the variations noted in horses are not wider 
than are found in the different breeds of domesticated 
sheep. As yet, nothing is positively known as to 
whether the modern horse sprang from one or two 
radically different species. It is sufficient here to call 
attention to the marked dissimilarity of horses in differ- 
ent localities and in different countries. 

(122) 



TYPES OF PONIES 



123 



The little bronco of Mexico and the United States 
has assumed several somewhat distinct types, due some- 
times to slight admixture of blood, and to climate, en- 
vironment and use. Specific distinguishing names have 




Fig. 21. Disgfusted with the circus in six months 

been given to .some of these types, — such as mustang, 
Creole, Indian and bronco. 

In the United States, comparatively few ponies are 
now bred or used, except on the plains. If these are 
handsome and kind, they are salable to a limited extent 



124 



THE HORSE 



at remunerative prices. The American lad, before he 
reaches his "teens," longs for a "truly" horse, one 
that has the form and action of the roadster and which 
requires more horsemanship to drive or ride than does 





..^/i> 




Fig. 22. A pair of trick ponies 

the pony. He may be satisfied with an animal fourteen 
hands high, which, in some sections, is called a pony, 
in others, a light roadster; but, in any case, the animal 
must have many of the traits and approach the build of 
the snappy roadster. In other words, he must not be 
pudgy, short of pace and thick of neck; if he is, he is 
called a child's pony, and despised by the lad of sixteen. 



IHE SHETLAND PONY , 125 

Those animals which are fourteen hands and under 
are usually classed as ponies; those above fourteen and 
under fifteen hands, if pony built, are, in England, 
called Galloways. However, this latter term is not com- 
monly used in the States to designate a smallish horse. 
The name pony, used generically to designate a small or 
smallish horse, of pony build, is used so differently in 
different countries, and even in different districts of the 
same country, that it is often difficult to classify them 
with any degree of accuracy. 

THE SHETLAND PONY 

Until quite recent!}', the Shetland pony was the only 
one bred in considerable numbers in the eastern states. 
The Shetland is the smallest of the pony breeds and has 
long attracted marked attention, because of his small- 
ness and not infrequently because of his peculiar and 
striking markings. Reared on the rugged Shetland 
Islands, north of Scotland, where a large animal would 
not serve the inhabitants so well as a small one, and in 
a climate so bleak that larger horses, even if introduced, 
would soon become dwarfed, they have not been crossed 
with larger breeds, except with the Iceland pony, which 
cross was not successful. These ponies are, in their 
native home, subjected to great hardships. They are 
usually allowed to roam in the open in the winter as well 
as in the summer. As the demand for them increased 
and the prices advanced, some pains have been taken to 
provide more abundant food and, not infrequently, rude 
shelter. However, the Shetland pony is so thickly 



126 



THE HORSE 



coated, or double -coated, with fine, short, mossy hair 
and a long, coarser coat, that he seeks the shelter of a 
building only in extremely tempestuous weather. When 
removed to a milder climate and housed, it requires but 
a few generations to materially modify the hairy cover- 
ing, and, in some cases, even the general form of the 
animal as well. The tendency is for them to grow taller, 




Fig. 23. Exile of Pittsford (4520). Height, 43% inches. 
Owned by Mrs. Estelle F. Hawley, Pittsford, N. Y. 

trimmer and of slightly less robust build if judiciously 
fed. The well-bred, home -reared pony is likely to fill 
the eye of the American boy better than the imported. 
There are several varieties of the Shetland ponies, 
due, in part, to the aspect of the locality in which they 
are bred; in part to the different tastes of the breed- 
ers; and probably, in part, to slight differences in the 
foundation stock of the several varieties. However, 



THE SHETLAND'S POPULARITY 



127 



they are sufficiently uniform to be classed as a single 
breed. 

There is likely to be an increased demand for first- 
class Shetlands. As wealth increases the demand 
increases; but this demand, as might be expected, is for 
high -class animals. The second-class pony has few 




Fig. 24. Bressay of Pittsford (3151). Height, 38 inches. 
Owned by Mrs. Estelle F. Hawley, Pittsford. N. Y. 

purchasers, for, if the income justifies the purchase of a 
pony at all, it justifies the acquiring of one that is both 
good and beautiful. As yet, in America, there is no 
large place for the Shetland pony except as a child's 
horse. 

While there have been several valuable breeds of 
ponies imported and bred in the United States, the little 
Shetland pony is not likely to lose his well-earned pop- 



128 THE HOUSE 

ularity. The pony can be made very useful, under 
proper supervision, in educating children to be. coura- 
geous, self-reliant, kind to and thoughtful of the brute 
creation. The American farm boy is usually an expert 
horseman, due, without doubt, to his early familiarity 
with colts and horses on the farm. The city lad may 
acquire much of the same expertness by handling 
ponies. This four-legged associate is often a safer com- 
panion, for a hot-headed youth, than a two-legged one. 
The question as to whether there is profit in raising 
ponies sinks into insignificance beside the larger one — 
Is there profit to the country in rearing self-reliant, 
strong, humanized citizens ? 

Other things being equal, the smaller ponies sell for 
higher prices than the larger ones, and the piebald or 
spotted ones often for more than those of solid colors. 
In any case, the Shetland is seldom more than thirteen 
hands high, fifty -two inches; the smaller ones but six 
to seven hands high. However, a large majority of 
these ponies range from thirty -five to fortj^-five inches 
in height. When placed under conditions similar to 
those of larger horses in America, the tendency is for 
them to increase in size and become somewhat phleg- 
matic and less-enduring. Then, too, they sometimes 
have a tendency to heaves or asthma. However, this 
tendency is largely or wholly due to idleness and over- 
feeding, especially of hay. The very fact that they are 
small and are pets results in their being fed too fre- 
quently and too liberally. In this country a hundred 
ponies are injured by overfeeding where one is injured 
by underfeeding. To keep ponies trim in form and 



GOOD VS. POOR PONIES 



129 



lively, especially where they are used but little, the 

grain ration should be about one -half, and the hay 

ration one -fourth of that fed to the employed roadster. 

It is sometimes said that a pony can be bred and 




Fig. 25. Champion Welsh ponj' mare. Titor, \l%, hands high. 
Owned by John Jones & Sons, Colwyn Bay, North Wales, England 

raised about as cheaply as a sheep. The raising of good 
ponies is a highly specialized business; therefore their 
breeding should not be begun hastily or ignorantly. 
Anybody can raise little horses at little expense, but 
they will have to be content with little prices. In pony 
breeding, something for a little or nothing is no more 
likely to be secured than in the production of other live 



130 THE HORSE 

stock. The same careful selection of foundation stock, 
the same judgment in mating and care as is taken in 
breeding the trotter or saddler, must be exercised, if the 
animals most in demand at remunerative prices are 
secured. 

THE WELSH PONY 

The Welsh pony averages nearly one hand higher 
than the Shetland, is less phlegmatic and hence not 
quite so easily handled by children as the Shetland. 
However, he is not vicious but more alert and quicker- 
motioned, which is due, possibh^ to an infusion, at some 
time, of Oriental blood. He is a tough little fellow, as 
are most ponies, performing., like the mustang, feats of 
endurance that seem incredible. Many of them have 
body and neck lines which closely approach those of 
well-built small horses. At the same time, something of 
the pony build is present. When all of these character- 
istics are harraoniouslj" combined, the result is a most 
beautiful and valuable animal. Great success has lately 
been achieved by some breeders in Wales by crossing a 
hackney- pony stallion on Welsh mountain -pony mares. 
See illustration (Fig. 27), hackney-pony stallion, Julius 
Caesar. 

EXMOOR, DARTMOOR AND NEW FOREST PONIES 

In the breeding of Exmoors, as in the breeding of 
Shetland ponies, distinctive families have been pro- 
duced. The Exmoor may be considered the parent or 
foundation stock of the Dartmoor and the New Forest 
families of the breed. These latter are so nearly identi- 



EXMOBE, DARTMOBE AND NE W FOREST 131 

cal with the Exmoor that it will not be necessary for 
our purpose to treat them separately. In fact, the Welch 
pony, the Exmoor, the Dartmoor and the New Forest 
are sometimes so nearly alike as to deceive good judges 




Fig. 26. Movement Welsh pony gelding. 
Owned by John Jones & Sons, Colwyn Bay, North Wales. England 

when an animal of one breed or variety is offered as 
belonging to another. There are no distinguishing 
colors in any of these breeds of ponies, and one 
sometimes merges so closely into another in size and 
characteristics, that but few persons can accurately clas- 
sify them off-hand. Then, too, a family or variety name 



132 



THE HOUSE 



is frequently used as a breed name. Even the marked 
characteristics of breeds and varieties, such ' as size, 
markings and activity, differ so little that it is often 




L 



•^f^msms^m^wmw:-. 



Fig. 27. Julius Caesar II (5666). 
Owned by John Jones & Sons, Colwyn Bay, North Wales, England 

impossible to distinguish one from another unless 
typical specimens of both are present for comparison. 
There is a constant multiplication of breeds and 



THE USEFULNESS OF THE MUSTANG 133 

subbreeds, and this tends to confuse those who purchasQ 
the animals, while it gives opportunity, on the part of 
the seller, to misrepresent without being detected. How- 
ever, multiplication of breeds and subbreeds tends to 
promote improvement. An honest, vigorous rivalry is 
indicative of growth and progress. The "battle of the 
breeds " may leave some slain by the wayside, but the 
fittest survive. The cyclonic arguments which period- 
ically take place vvith some classes of breeders of live 
stock clear the atmosphere. 

MUSTANGS 

The pure mustang traces directly back to the Spanish 
horse, being the offspring of horses escaped from 
domestication. The horses brought from Spain during 
the Conquest of Mexico, 1519-22, formed the foundation 
stock for this hardy, vicious, wiry, unreliable, smoky- 
dun, yellow-clay, mouse-white or pink-roan, piebald, 
everlasting, bucking mustang. The forces of nature 
might have made a more erratic horse and one of 
tougher material, but never did. Happily, the same 
conditions which produced the horse produced a man 
able to tame and ride him. No other horse could have 
withstood the uses to which he was put, and no other 
man but the plains -man could have put a horse to such 
uses and abuses. The early civilization and conditions, 
and the climate, produced men who were not content 
unless something as exciting as lassoing a Texas steer, 
fighting wild Indians or riding the wilder mustang were 
a daily pastime. The mustang has been a most helpful 



134 



THE HOBSI] 



little brute, and has played an important part in the 
substitution of sleek grade Herfords and Short -horns 
for the bull -headed bison and the treacherous coj-ote. 
Juicy, njarbleized steaks have been substituted for the 
dry, leathery, tough bison meat; and farms and homes, 




Permission of Breeders' Gazette 

Fig. 28. Gaited broncho. American-bred 



corn and cattle, and "God's country" have taken the 
place of the wigwam, the Indian, the coyote and the 
desert. Without him, the wild hordes of the rocky fort- 
resses, and the illimitable windy plains now burning 
hot, now bleak and cold as Iceland, would not have been 
settled and civilized for many long years. But for the 



INDIAN AND CREOLE PONIES 135 

pony, communication could not have been had between 
the west and the east in the pioneer days. The pony 
overland express was as useful and as necessary in its 
day as are the transcontinental railways in our times. 

THE INDIAN PONY 

The Indian pony is an offshoot of the mustang. As 
the mustang drifted northward, he found a colder 
climate and, if not a more exacting, a less intelligent 
owner. While the pony was ridden by the brave, he 
was petted and starved in turn by the squaw. He was 
often called on to perform tasks which tried his courage 
to its utmost. What with close familiarity with the 
family and periods of semi -starvation during inclem- 
ent winters, as he drifted northward he lost something 
of size and power to perform, and much of the erratic 
temper due to his Spanish -Mexican origin. Like the 
mustang, he is found in many colors. When well nour- 
ished he inclines to be more rotund than the mustang. 
Some writers have suggested that this is due, in part, to 
a cross with the small horses of Canada. However this 
may be, there is not enough mixture of blood to hide 
the prominent mustang characteristics. 

CREOLES 

The little Creole pony is prized in some portions of 
Louisiana. They have been called "pocket editions of 
the thoroughbred race -horse." When crossed with the 
Shetland, ponies are often produced which are not only 
lively and hardy but gentle as well. 



136 THE EOESE 

There are several valuable breeds of ponies in South 
America. Those of the pampas are numerous and are 
from the same foundation stock as are those of North 
America. All of the native breeds and varieties of 
ponies, — and there are many of both in North and 
South America, — trace back to those found roaming 
wild over plains and pampas; and these, in turn, go 
back to a common ancestry — the smallish, warm- 
blooded horses of Spain. Within the last few years, 
all of the ponies of the plains have become modified, 
and it is not now easy to find typical specimens of the 
ponies of half a centurj^ ago. 

The ponies of the plains are not inferior brood- 
mares, considering their diminutive size. They range 
from twelve to fourteen hands high and in weight from 
six hundred to nine hundred pounds. If mated with the 
large breeds, their progeny reaches a fair size. The 
blood of the ponies, when judiciously mingled with the 
phlegmatic draft breeds, — that is, when the difference in 
the size of sire and dam is not too great, — results in a 
fair-sized, active, good-tempered, courageous animal, 
suitable for moderate driving, the plow or light draft. 
So the Indian and mustang ponies have furnished some 
good acclimated brood-mares, without which the farmer 
and the breeder of the western plains would have been 
greatly inconvenienced in early days, in the production 
of the commoner's horse. With good roads and the 
increase of toilsome, productive work and wealth, must 
come the roadster, the coacher and the draft-horse, the 
stylish saddler and the children's safe horse. Like the 
Indians, these ponies become subject to that inexorable 



PBODUCINQ POLO PONIES 137 

law, "the survival of the fittest," which is not sta.yed 
long by wish or will or painstaking effort. 

THE POLO PONY 

In recent years a demand has sprung up for a pony 
somewhat different from any yet described. A wiry, 
active, courageous animal, of good temper and unex- 
celled endurance. He should be from thirteen and a half 
to fourteen and a half hands high. Polo ponies larger 
than this are considered too tall, as they place the rider 
too far from his work. The small pony, one below thir- 
teen hands, has not the speed, activity or power neces- 
sary to carry the rider successfully through a sharply 
contested game of polo. Of course, an ideal polo pony 
can be produced only by a liberal admixture of the 
Arabian or Oriental blood with that of selected mares 
of the Welch or Exmoor type, or with suitably shaped 
small mares which already have some of the warm-blood 
characteristics. The best -tempered mustang or Indian 
mares would form most excellent foundation stock, on 
the dam's side, for the production of an American breed 
of polo ponies. (See Fig. 4, Chap. III.) If the Ara- 
bian blood were once harmoniously united with the blood 
of the plains, the foundation, at least, would be laid of 
a breed of horses upon which an unexcelled breed of 
ponies suited to polo and other similar work could 
speedily be reared. The foundation stock for such a 
breed, though scattered, is abundant. Where is the 
genius who will take up the work of uniting the valu- 
able scattered potential forces, and thus produce a breed 



138 2'^^ HORSE 

of ponies, or small horses, which, if good, are likely to 
be much in demand in the near future. It certainly 
would not be as difficult to produce a breed, or at all 
events a variety, of ponies at least as well suited to the 
special needs of Americans as are the trotters, pacers 
and roadsters. There certainly is a large place for good 
small horses and ponies, as well as for large and fast 
ones. Now that good foundation stock is at hand for 
forming such a class of horses, it would be unfortunate 
if the opportunity were lost. Must we be importing for- 
ever, or shall we be wise and produce animals worthy 
of being exported to the best high-priced markets of 
Europe ? 



CHAPTER XI T 



DRAFT- ROBSES— CLYDESDALE, ENGLISH SHIRE, 
SUFFOLK PUNCH 

One of the oldest, if not the oldest breed of British 
draft -horse, is the Clydesdale. As a variety, they 
attracted attention as early as 1715; but it was loug 
afterward before they assumed that uniformity of 
character and potency which should be possessed by 
any class of animals before it can properly be called a 
breed. There appear to be good reasons for believing, 
and the most trusted authorities assert, that all of the 
heavy draft -breeds trace back to the wild Black Horse 
of Europe. This would seem to be a fair conclusion, 
since it is not probable that large draft -horses were 
developed from light, high -mettled, oriental foundation 
stock; though, without doubt, most, if not all of the 
draft-breeds have some admixture of warm blood. 
Horse-breeders from time immemorial have been fond 
of trying experiments; hence heavy stallions were, as 
they are now, sometimes bred to mixed -blooded mares, 
and not infrequently desirable female offspring resulted. 
These were then used to beget other offspring. Selec- 
tions were then made according to the consensus of 
opinion of the best breeders, usually in a somewhat 
restricted district, as to the characteristics and qualities 
most desired. 

(139) 



]40 



THE HORSE 



Almost nothing is known of the method by which 
the blood of the original Black Horse of Europe was 
transformed into the Flemish draft -horse. Suffice it to 
say, at an early period, a heavy, rotund, short -legged 
draft -animal, somewhat similar in type to the Clydesdale 




Ftg. 29. Lord Stewart, Clydesdale stallion 
Seaham Harbour Stud, Seaham Harbour, England 

of the present day, had been developed in Flanders. 
These, or their progeny, in a more or less pure form, 
appear to have been used to give the desired weight 
and form to nascent varieties of heavy horses in Great 
Britain and France, and probably in other European 
countries as well. However, the Flemish type has been 



ORIGIN OF THE CLYDES 141 

SO changed, both in France and Great Britain, as to 
lose many of its original characteristics. Hence, not- 
withstanding the fact that more or less of the blood 
of the British and French draft -horses is of Flemish 
origin, these modern breeds are justly entitled to the 
names they bear, as they are a new production rather 
than an improvement of the old Flemish breed. 

The memory of Mr. John Patterson, of Lochyloch, 
Scotland, pioneer in draft -horse breeding, and Robert 
Bakewell, pioneer in the breeding of mutton sheep, 
should be honored and preserved; for they gave an 
impetus to the improvement of live stock which is 
still felt wherever superior farm animals are loved and 
prized. Some time in the early part of the eighteenth 
century, Mr. Patterson brought from England a Flemish 
stallion, which is said to have so greatly improved the 
draft -horses of Upper Ward as to make them noted 
all over Scotland, and in portions of England. 

Description. — The color of the modern Clyde is gen- 
erally bay or brown, sometimes with and sometimes 
without white markings, though blacks and sorrels are 
occasionally seen. The white is usually confined to a 
strip in the face, "blaze," and the lower part of the legs. 
Formerly the colors were not so dark, nor were the 
animals so well formed as they are at the i)resent time. 
They still occasionally retain some of their old charac- 
teristics of shape and color. The flanks, the inside of 
the thighs and the belly are frequently a light bay, 
fading out in the less-exposed parts to a dun. The 
Clyde belongs to the large breeds, the stallions weighing 
from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds, and mares from 1,300 to 




c3 ^ 



DESCRIPTION OF TEH CLYDE 143 

1,600, although specimens of heavier weights are 
sometimes found. The Clyde is tall, sixteen to seven- 
teen hands, rangey, yet smooth and symmetrical, with 
long head, medium or rather short neck, strong, short 
le^s heavily fringed below the knee with hair, "feather," 
and unusually long, slanting shoulders for a draft -breed. 
The length of shoulder and the rather unusual slant 
indicate activity and ease of movement. They have a 
kind, quiet disposition, good courage,, and quite enough 
spirit for heavy work. Some of the horses first imported 
had poor feet and too long limbs. Recent importations 
show great improvement, not only in these two points 
but in others as well. Some of the Clydes are too small 
at the waist, " wasp-waisted," in which case the floating 
ribs are too short and the flank is too high. Both of 
these characteristics, as well as the too steep rump, were 
observable in some of the earlier importations. How- 
ever, it should be said that if the flank were bred down 
too low it would interfere with the long, rapid stride for 
which the Clyde is especially noted. Then, too, the feet 
of this breed, like those of all other draft -breeds, are 
not always so good as might be desired. It may be said, 
however, that few or none of these defects are discover- 
able in the better specimens of the modern Clyde. 

Clydesdale, the valley of the Clyde river, which 
extends with its tributaries through the counties of 
Renfrewand Lanark, is fertile and moist, and hence it 
is often difficult to secure horses with as hard and 
cylindrical feet as desired. All large draft -breeds 
incline to be flat-footed. Abundant hair, "feather," on 
the lower part of the legs, is objectionable in many 



144 



THE HORS'E 



parts of the United States. Fortunately, American- 
reared Clydesdales show a marked diminution of 
"feather," and improvement in the shape and character 
of the feet. Especially is this true in locations of light 




Fia. 31. Bortliwick. Imported Clydesdale stallion. 
Owned by Alex- Galbraith, Esq., Janesville, Wis. 

rainfall and abundant sunshine. Occasionally we still 
see "wasp-waisted" and " goose -rumped" Clydes, but 
they are becoming more and more rare. Better horses 
are now being bred in Great Britain; and better horses 
are being imported, and far better judgment is being 
exercised in mating and rearing in the United States, 



BREED BUILDING 145 

than formerly. The result is a large number of really 
superior Clydes and a relatively small number of poor, 
unsymmetrical animals. 

The attempt is often made to show that a breed 
originates from one or a few animals of note, whereas such 
animals only improve or accentuate desirable qualities. 
Thej^ may be, and usually are, the first mile -stones 
from which the history and records of the breed are 
made up, so it has become customary to give credit, as 
the parent stock of the breed, to a few animals which 
showed marked improvement over other animals of 
similar characteristics. It is self-evident that the power 
to produce specimens above the average was present, 
though usually latent, in the ancestors which preceded 
the specimens which showed marked variations for the 
better. The valuable and distinguishing characteristics 
of a breed are not produced in a day or in a single 
generation. They come by slow growth, in accordance 
with the laws of evolution. However, for convenience 
in writing up the inception and development of a breed, 
we start with one or a few more or less noted animals, 
and largely or entirely ignore the ancestry which lies 
back of them. From a few more or less distinguished 
animals, the breed begins and is usually developed by 
in -breeding for a few generations. When a breed is 
being formed, often little is known of the ancestors of 
the females which are bred to the selected foundation - 
males. Several generations may elapse before an 
attempt is made to exclude from the Dreed, especially 
on the female side, animals which have less than 
seven -eighths of the selected or approved ancestry. 



146 THE HORSE 

The terra "full blood" has been an extremely in- 
definite one, and when applied to recently formed 
breeds is still so. The flexible rules observed when a 
breed is being formed, instead of being a hindrance, 




Pi r-i ission of F. -S. Peer 
Fig. 32. Clydesdale mare 

are, in, fact, a great help, as they give wide opportunity 
for selecting the best animals and for making such 
crosses and combinations as give promise of securing 
improvement. The improvement once secured, "in- 
breeding," to some extent, must be resorted to, or 
the improvement is likelj^ to disappear. (See Chapter 
XIII). However much the historian may be interested 
in the early history of the breed, — which too often is 
lamentably contradictory, — it does not follow that the 



ENGLISH SHIBE 147 

busy farmer, or even the agricultural student, should 
go into the innumerable petty historical details, many 
of which are unverified. It is far better to learn the 
characteristics of a good animal, secure him, and then 
acquire the skill and knowledge necessary to preserve 
the standard of excellence already attained; or better 
still, to raise the standard higher. It matters little 
now whether the ancestor of your horse, fifteen gene- 
rations removed, was Flying Childers, Periwinkle or 
Snodgrass. Those who desire a more extended historical 
sketch than is here given can secure it by reading 
some of the works devoted to this breed. 

ENGLISH SHIRE 

This breed of horses is so nearly like the Clydesdale 
that it hardly merits a distinctive name. It would be 
less misleading if it were called English Clydesdale. 
Most characteristics are common to both breeds. The 
Shires brought to the United States are, as a rule, 
splendid animals. They are close-ribbed, have a trifle 
shorter legs, and are a shade larger than the Clydesdale. 
Whether these slight changes have been brought about 
largely by selection, or by a slight infusion of some 
closely allied blood, or by both, we do not know, — 
and it matters little whether the petty details of the 
methods used are ever known. It is enough to know 
that the Shire horse gets a grand inheritance in the 
main, if not entirely, from that valuable old breed, the 
Clydesdale. Perhaps it may be well, after all, that this 
off- shoot of the Clydesdale has been given another name, 



148 



THE HORSE 



since it will create an honest rivalry between the 
breeders of tliese two breeds. 

It is customary to use illustrations of the most per- 
fect horses of a breed, and not infrequently the camera 




Fig. 33. Dunsmore Combination (17314), 
Owned by Thomas Ewart, Dunsmore Home Farm, Rugby, England 

and the artist improve the original. The breeders of 
dairy cows quickly learned which end of the animal to 
place nearest the camera. In photographing horses, it is 
more undesirable to change the normal perspective; for, 
in foreshortening lines, symmetry of form is distorted. 



ILLUSTRATIONS DISCUSSED 149 

Perhaps it is well to use the very best animals for 
illustration since it results in producing in the mind 
an ideal, however difficult it may be to attain to it. On 
the other hand, the amateur breeder, whose expectations 
have become great by reason of such beautiful illustra- 
tions, is sometimes greatly disappointed when his efforts 
fall far short of his expectations, founded on illustra- 
tions in the books. He has his animal photographed for 
the purpose of placing a true picture at the head of his 
handbill, but he discards it for a made-up one, which 
the untrained eye does not detect as an impossible horse. 
Such breeders may succeed in producing good animals; 
but, falling far short of their ideals, they lose interest 
and go out of the business in disgust. So it may be well 
to warn the beginner that the top is reached only by 
long-continued effort. The road to the summit is steep 
and rough, and strewn with the bones of many common- 
place horses. The horse, like other living things, is 
responsive to environment, and changes rapidly for tne 
worse if the conditions o£ his life become less congenial, 
his food less plentiful, or less nourishing, and his 
work more difficult, than in the past. The standard of 
excellence attained by slow, painstaking, laborious 
effort during two centuries is so high that it requires a 
genius even to maintain it; so the young farmer should 
not be disappointed if he is unable to produce horses 
that fully meet his desires or the high standard of 
excellence. 

The illustrations should be studied closely and the 
living animals as well; and not only should those of ther 
draft-breeds be compared, but those of the lighter 



GOOD PICTURES 



151 



breeds with those of the heavy breeds. The student of 
Animal Industry has become careless and unappreciative 
of the educational value of the fine illustrations which 
have become so common. The man with uneducated 
tastes often treats them more carelessly than he does a 




Kindness of Mark Lane Express, London. England 
Fig. 35. Shire Filly. Tattou Bessie 

circus -dodger. If the farmer had no other good pictures 
in his house than those contained in the "Breeders' 
Gazette" of December 19, 1900, he would have a 
respectable picture gallery of our larger domestic 
animals. 1 only regret that the size of the page in this 
book and the conditions under which it is published do 
not permit of more and larger illustrations. 



152 



TEE ffOBSE 



SUFFOLK PUNCH 

The origin of this breed is obscure. Some have 
supposed that his color indicates that the foundation 
stock was produced by crossing stallions from France, 




Fig. 36. Suffolk Punch stallion 
Property of Alex. Galbraith, Esq., Janesville, Wis. 

supposedl^^ gray, and Suffolkshire mares, supposedly 
bay, which, it is assumed, would produce sorrels. 
Neither the form nor the color of this breed gives any 
clear evidence of the breed having been formed by 
such admixture. All over Great Britain, stout sorrel 
horses have been common from time immemorial. 
The crude material was at hand; all it wanted was 






CHABACTEBISTICS OF SUFFOLK PUNCH 153 

some one with the instincts of a Bakewell to produce 
a breed of sorrel, baj-, black, or piebald color. This 
breed should be none the less prized because little 
or nothing is certainly known of its early history, 
which began before the middle of the eighteenth 
century. 

The Suffolks, like all other breeds of horses, have 
been greatly improved during the last third of the 
century just closed. The feet are now, as a rule, good. 
The breed has more of the short, rotund build than 
the two breeds previously mentioned, or the Percherons. 
The number in the United States is relatively small as 
compared with the Clydes and Percherons, although 
the breed as a whole, as seen in America, strikes one 
as having the ideal, harmonious proportion of parts, 
and conformation which should indicate endurance and 
power. A more extended test of them and their grade 
offspring will fully reveal how much they have of 
courage, with patience and endurance under severe 
usage, — both of which should be prominent character- 
istics in any draft breed. The Clydesdales and Per- 
cherons were first in the field, and, both being good, 
it is not easy tc supplant them. 

Description. — The color of the Suffolk is more uni- 
form than that of most other breeds, being almost 
invariably sorrel of some shade, — not infrequently 
so dark as to take on the semi -dappled, darkish, rich 
chestnut hue. Not quite so tall or heavy as the Clydes 
or Shires, but ranging in height from fifteen and one- 
half to sixteen and one -half hands, and in weight from 
1,400 to 1,800 pounds. The shoulders are of true draft 



HONEST DIFFERENCES OF OPINION 155 

form, not being too oblique; shortish neck and legs, 
clean head and limbs. 

One cannot help getting the impression that they 
have not so much spirit nor so long a stride as the 
Clydesdale. Be that as it may, they are a valuable 
addition to our draft breeds, and time alone can reveal 
whether or not they can win their way to equally popu- 
lar favor with the two leading breeds. 

No breed or animal is perfect; every breed is likely 
to have some characteristic defects. There are few, if 
any, animais so perfect but that we would like to make 
some slight changes. But if a writer points out a slight 
defect in a breed, as shown when large numbers of 
animals are inspected, somebody gets hot "under the 
collar." Then, too, honest differences of opinion too 
often are not given respectful treatment. Some horse- 
men have yet to learn the philosophy of agreeing to 
disagree. A conservative horseman of high standing 
says, "I have yet to find a writer on the horse who 
dared to call attention even to slight defects of any one 
of the modern breeds except the bronco." On this little 
fellow he vents all his spite; and, what with writers 
and riders, it is no wonder that he occasionally strikes 
back or "bucks" in sheer self-defence of his long- 
acquired right to freedom and self- protection. 



CHAPTER XII 

FRENCH, BELGIAN AND FLEMISH DEAFT-HOBSES 

France, like Great Britain, has several breeds of 
draft -horses. Standing out prominently, as superior to 
all others, is the ancient Percheron. 

He has a most interesting history, which is too 
voluminous to be recorded here. The student will be 
interested in perusing "The Percheron Horse," by 
Charles DuHays, which, through the efforts of William 
T. Walters, of Baltimore, has been translated. The 
illustrations enable one by comparison to judge of the 
improvement which has been made since it was written. 
A good idea of the general character of the best 
specimens of the Percheron before the breed took on 
its present distinctive draft type may be secured by 
studying the illustration of Success. (Fig. 38.) 

Neither the kind, number nor character of the 
French horse is known prior to the battle of Tours, 
lu 732, the Saracen chief, Abderame, was defeated by 
Charles Martel, at Tours, in one of the most famous 
battles of history. The invading army, 300,000 of 
which it is said were slain, was from the East, as were 
also the horses which the cavalry rode. While these 
horses were not supposed to have been of any particular 
breed, the fact that they were from the Orient gives 
assurance that they were not of the heavy -draft 

(156) 



NOT OF THE DRAFT TYPE 



157 



type, but had, without doubt, some of the character- 
istics of the horses which later were used to give 
style, stamina and speed to more phlegmatic varieties. 
The large number of eastern horses secured as a part 







Fig. 38. Success. 

Owned by M. W. Dunham, Wayne, 111. 

An indifferent picture of an historicvl Pereheron before the breed assumed 

the heavy-draft type 

of the spoils of victorj^ must have had a marked 
influence on the native horses of France. As time 
went on, agriculture improved, the care of the horse 
and his food became better and more abundant, and 
the natural result followed — larger and better horses. 



158 THE HORSE 

War still continued to be the chief and paramount 
vocation of large numbers of able-bodied men. As im- 
plements of warfare were improved and made more 
deadly, recourse was had to coats of mail for protection. 
At first these were of light weight, but, as the efficiency 
of weapons was increased, the armor was also increased 
in weight, until it not infrequently outweighed the 
warrior who wore it. Simultaneously with the increase 
of the weight to be carried, came an increase in the 
size and weight of the war-horse. Just how this was 
accomplished is not certain, but it is believed that 
resort was had to both English and Danish stallions. 
Later, the post -roads opened through the country also 
had an effect on the size and character of French 
horses in many districts. 

The change from the old type, which had some of the 
characteristics of the Oriental horse, to a more distinc- 
tive draft type was accomplished by 1760; but, between 
this date and 732, many unrecorded influences were 
operating, without doubt, to change the small Arabian 
types of the horses of LaPerche to a larger draft type. 
As late as 1873, I saw a few specimens of the modified 
Oriental horses in the districts which had long since 
adopted a larger animal of the draft type. Up to 1820, 
the draft -horses of France lacked the symmetry and 
finish which they now possess. It is not an easy task to 
harmoniously unite two varieties of horses so dissimilar 
as the Oriental and the English draft. Although the 
draft-blood was introduced as early as 1760, up to 1820 
it had not been satisfactorily united with the Oriental 
and native blood; for, about the latter date, a system- 



EARLY IMPORTATIONS 159 

atic effort was made by the Government to eliminate the 
coarseness which had been introduced by the free and 
frequently injudicious use of draft -blood. About 1820, 
two noted gray Oriental stallions, Godolphin and 
Gallipoli, were introduced into the Government stables 
at Pin. These two prepotent stallions fixed the style of 
color and fastened it on an already susceptible breed. 
The refining process went on rapidly and the French 
heavy horse became a well-defined prepotent breed, 
which still shows some Arabian characteristics har- 
moniously united with prominent draft qualities. The 
importation of these horses into the United States 
began about 1851, twenty -five years before the publi- 
cation of the first Percheron stud-book in America. 
The Percheron Horse-breeders' Association is the oldest 
draft-horse breeders' society, and was organized and 
published a stud-book several years before the Society 
Hippique Percheron ne was organized in France. 

G. W. Curtis says, "One of the stallions imported in 
1851, under the name of French Horse, was sold to 
Dillon & Co., of Normal, 111., and was shown under the 
name of 'Norman.' The early importers were at liberty 
to give any distinctive breed-name to the animals 
imported, for, as yet, there was no stud-book in France. 
Some of these early importations were from the old 
province of LaPerche, some from Normandy, some were 
purchased in the city of Paris, and some were gathered 
from no one knows where, — though all appeared to have 
the general characteristics of the Percheron." 

It will readily be seen how natural it was, under the 
circumstances, to attach different breed-names to horses 



160 



THE EOBSE 




Fig. 39. Percheron stallion, Calj^so 25017 (44577) 
Imported by Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Oaklawn Farm, Wayne, 111. 

purchased in different localities; and, the name being 
adopted, right or wrong, how difficult it was to change 
it. In 1876, when the first volume of the stud-book was 
being prepared, the distinguishing name "Norman" was 
adopted. Mr. J. H. Saunders, then secretary of the 



ME BIT PLUS BREEDING 161 

Stud -Book Association, changed it to "Percheron 
Norman," which name was afterward ratified by the 
Association. This was unsatisfactory to some of the 
importers and breeders of the French draft -horses, 
since the distinguishing breed -name which had been 
used was of value, being in the nature of a trade -mark. 
So other stud-book societies were formed, and we now 
have three of them. (See Live Stock Registry Associa- 
tions, Appendix.) 

All this is unfortunate, since these books, as well as 
the French Stud -Book, record but one breed of horses. 
Then, too, these various registers have different stan- 
dards for admissions to registration. The Percheron 
society requires that all animals imported after January 
1, 1884, must be recorded in the Percheron Stud -Book 
of France. The National Register of Norman Horses 
admits all draft -horses of French draft -blood, no 
matter to what family they belong. There is also a 
stud-book published in the United States known as the 
National Register of French Draft -Horses, with some- 
what elastic rules for registration. 

•It is unfortunate that the breeders of the noble 
Percheron should have become divided into three some- 
what hostile camps, and still more unfortunate that 
horses should, at this late date, be admitted to regis- 
tration without full guarantee of breeding and of merit. 
Far better make the rules, even of the Percheron Stud- 
Book, still more rigid, and allow colts only a provisional 
registration; which could be changed to permanent 
registration when they reached five j^ears of age; if, 
after examination, they were found to be worthy of 

K 



162 THE HORSE 

propagating the breed. We must adopt something of 
this sort for all the breeds if we ever succeed in pre- 
serving the high standard seen in recently imported 
horses. In no other way can we hope to produce an 
American variety of Percherons better adapted for 
heavy work than those brought over at great pains 
and expense. The Percheron is capable of improve- 
ment; why not have a home -breed as much superior 
to the average foreign horse as the American Merino 
is superior to the imported Spanish Merino ? The 
breeders of trotters and Holstein cattle are on the 
right track, and will win out at the end. 

Already something is being done to change the 
somewhat objectionable light colors to dark ones. The 
coarse heads and goose rumps, formerly all too common 
in all of the draft -breeds, are becoming rare, and they 
can be entirely eliminated only by official and rigid 
selection. Our government is not paternal, and cannot 
and should not do this work, since the associations 
have the power to do it, and can do it better than 
the government officials. Which society will be the first 
to adopt more rigid and better rules for registration 
of horses 1 

Description. — The color of most Percherons is gray 
of varied shades. Sometimes it is quite light, becoming 
nearly pure white in old age. Again, the striking light 
and dark dapples are seen, and dark grays, almost 
black, with a few white hairs. Comparatively few 
blacks have, as yet, been bred, although dark colors 
are sought and are more common than formerly. 
The American purchaser prefers darker rather than 




Kindness of Breeders' Gazette 



Fig. 41. Deguardi 11340. 
Owned by Geo. B. and Chas. P. McPherson, Hereford, S. D. 



COLOR AND OTHER CHABACTEBISTICS 165 

lighter colors; hence the effort in France is to produce 
darker colored animals than formerly. So, too, in the 
United States, dark grays are sought rather than light 
grays. It will take many generations to entirely elimi- 
nate the light colors, so long one of the characteristics 
of the breed; but this will be accomplished in time if 
Americans persist in preferring dark- rather than light- 
colored draft -horses. This preference is not founded 
on a fad, for, other things being equal, dark-colored 
horses are to be preferred to light -colored ones. 

The body of the Percheron has something of the 
pony compactness. Legs shortish with massive forearm, 
but clean and closely knit, especially below the knee, 
with pastern -joint free from "feather." Most specimens 
have fine heads. The true Percheron head is clean, 
expressive in all parts, of moderate size, topped with 
beautiful ears and well set on a magnificent flexible 
neck, although it is large at the base, where it is broadly 
attached to rather oblique shoulders, all of which give 
the appearance of strength with style and elasticity, 
with no suggestion of the pig's neck. All of the draft- 
breeds are remarkably free from bone diseases, consid- 
ering their great w^eight and their severe work. The 
draft -horse of whatever breed has a thick skin, which 
is not as sensitive as is the skin of the warm-blooded 
horse. The not over-sensitive, thickish skin, coupled 
with difficult work and great weight, all tend to certain 
skin diseases which, fortunately, usually only injure the 
symmetry of the limbs and iii most cases are of a mild 
character. The feet are firm, and usually a little more 
rotund and erect than are those of some of the other 



166 



Tfl^A' HORSE 



draft -breeds. The weight of the mature Pereheron 
stallion, except in rare cases, is from 1,500 to 1,800 
pounds, and that of the mares from 1,200 to 1,700. 
Grade Percherons are quite variable in weight, owing to 




Fig. 42. Pereheron stallion, Picador 27370 (48373). 
Owned by Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Oaklawn Farm, Wayne, 111. 



the wide difference in the size of their nondescript 
dams. 

The illustrations, it is hoped, will give some help in 
the study of both the dark- and the light -colored 
Percherons; but the reader should not be satisfied until 
many individuals of this breed, under both unfavorable 



STUD-BOOK OF APPROVED HORSES 167 

and ideal conditions, have been inspected. Flesh and 
comparative idleness combined sometimes deceive the 
purchaser as to harmony and beauty of outlines and 
courage and endurance. 

FRENCH DRAFT 

There is not only an American Stud -Book for record- 
ing the Percherons, but one for the French draft and 
one for Norman horses as well. We have, then, three 
distinct Stud -Books for recording what is virtually one 
breed of horses. In other words, we have a sharp dis- 
tinction without a difference. If fifty horses of each of 
these groups were turned loose in the show -ring, 
neither a Frenchman nor an American could place the 
animals correctly by groups. This is confusing, when 
the beginner starts out to learn something of draft- 
horses; nevertheless, good is likely to come out of this 
war of breeds, since the breeders of these various- 
French horses will keep up a sharp, and, it is hoped, 
peaceful and honest rivalry. Breaking up a breed into 
groups sometimes results in great good. In time, the 
survival of the fittest will solve many questions which 
arguments and a multitude of words fail to explain. 

Some of the imported French horses are not eligible 
to record in the Percheron Stud -Book, hence there 
appears to be good reason for establishing another one. 
All this leads to the question. Why not establish 
another Stud- Book of "Approved American-French 
Draft-Horses," as previously outlined ? 

It is not necessary separately to describe either the 



168 THE HOBSE 

French draft or the Norman, as the description of the 
Percheron already given will suffice. 

BOULONNAIS 

This variety of draft -horses is somewhat larger and 
not so active as are the Percherons. Their appearance 
leads to the conclusion that they have more of the blood 
of the heavy draft or Flemish, and less of the Oriental 
blood, than the Percheron, which they somewhat resem- 
ble. Though closely related to the Percheron, they are 
coarser in make-up, slower of movement and less desir- 
able for American uses. The breed takes its name from 
the city of Boulogne. The colors are variable. Their 
most appropriate place is for heavy tandem draft -teams 
in the streets t)f Paris. They are not prized as highly in 
the United States as are most of the other draft -breeds. 

BELGIAN DRAFT - HORSE 

The Belgian horse has not been so popular in the 
United States as the Clyde and the Percheron. The 
reason why these two breeds have been imported and 
bred in far greater numbers than the other draft -breeds 
is believed to be due to the fact that both of these breeds 
possess not only good draft form, but superior action, 
courage and style, for horses produced as they were, 
largely from the phlegmatic branch of the genus Equus 
Oaballus. Be this as it may, the American requires 
that even his draft -horse shall not pound the pavement 
too heavily, or be as slow and as unresponsive as an ox. 



LONG VS. SHORT NECKS 



169 



It may be, that, to gratify this taste of the American 
for a lively stepper and a "bit champer," the breeders, 
in some cases, have 
produced a draft - 
horse with too long 
a neck and too slant- 
ing a shoulder. A 
distinguished im- 
porter and breeder 
once said to me: 
" The ' toppy ' horses 
sell, but the short- 
necks, while less 
stylish, wear best." 

It is probable that 
the Belgian has lit- 
tle or no admixture 
of "hot blood." He 
certainly has quite 
as many of the true 
draft points as have 
the two breeds so 
largely admired. The 
illustrations of the 
best horses of the 
breed show a larger 
horse than the 
Clyde; the neck is 
shorter, the breast wider, and the whole body -formation 
more blocky than is usually seen in the Clydesdales, and 
he has less feather than the Clvde. 




i'lG. 43. Brilliant Du Bjisquet. 
Owned by Honrv Lefebure, Fairfax, Iowa 



170 



THJS HOBSE 




Fig. 44. Colonel De Dompiere. 
Owned by Henry Lefebure, Fairfax, Iowa 

It is a good thing for the horse industry that there 
are not only breeds of widely divergent characteristics, 
but also breeds so slightly different as to deceive the 
experts unless the breed name is placarded. All this 
serves to educate the eye and the judgment, as well 
as to form interesting topics for discussion. 



CHABACTEBISTICS OF THE BELGIAN 171 

Horses imported since 1888 must be registered in 
the Government Register of Belgium (Society of Bel- 
gia Stock Farmers), to be eligible for registration in 
the American Register. 

Description. — Color usually bay, dark and light 
browns — all good colors. They are somewhat larger 
than the Percherons. Selected mature stallions, such as 
are usually imported, weigh from 1,700 to 2,20) pounds, 
and mature mares from ],5J0 to 1,900 pounds. The 
head is reasonably small; neck short and very power- 
ful; chest wide and deep; back short and broad; close- 
ribbed, and full over kidneys; hips fairly long, broad, 
smooth and symmetrical; legs short, flat, arm heavj^- 
muscled, with the usual open, rather low heel of the 
draft breeds. This breed has not been as popular as 
the Percherons and the Clydes. Probably this is due 
to its build, which indicates a breed of less activity 
than the two great leading draft breeds adopted by 
the Americans. As seen in his native country he does 
not strike one as having the long, elastic, quick stride 
of the Scotch or French draft -horse. 

THE FLEMISH HORSE 

The modern Flemish and Belgian horses are the 
giants of their race. Springing from a common ances- 
try, bred under similar conditions, put to common 
uses, it is no wonder that the two breeds are very simi- 
lar. They are tall with heavy bodies, but sometimes the 
true muscular development is not in harmony with the 
bone structure. The color is usually bay or brown, both 



ADAPTATION TO USE 173 

good. The collars used are not infrequently built up on 
the sides and the haraes extend well above the collars, 
the ends being curved and furnished with bright metal 
mountings, giving a brave look to the horse so much 
admired by the Belgians. In harness the Flemish horses 
have a massive and superlatively strong appearance, 
especially when viewed from the front. They and their 
congeners, the Belgians, are in common use on farms in 
most parts of Belgium^; but they are too large for Amer- 
ican farm work, and, above all, they do not please the 
American boy, who wants ahorse that can pull anything 
that is loose at one end or out -pull any other horse of 
the same size, and out-trot and out-jump and out-run 
any other horse in the settlement. He will become 
weaned from this extreme notion, in time, and learn to 
breed horses adapted to the soil on which they are 
reared and to the specific work which they will be 
called upon to perform. The Belgian draft will fill a 
demand and find an appropriate place in the large man- 
ufacturing cities. 

1 West Flanders and East Flanders are now provinces, or counties, 
of Belgium, and not a distinct country. 



CHAPTER XIII 

PBINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

The breeding of horses is usually carried on, first, 
iu order to procure directly or indirectly the necessaries 
of life, and, second, to secure a profit. Occasionally 
they are bred simply for pleasure or pastime. 

It would be out of place to discuss here what 
amount of surplus or reserve it is best to accumulate, 
or how fully the so-called necessaries of life should 
be supplied, in order that man may arrive at his best 
estate. We enter at once, therefore, upon the discussion 
of the laws and forces which underlie animal life and 
reproduction, growth, development and change, with 
the paramount object of increasing the quality and 
quantity of the necessaries of life, of diminishing labor, 
of increasing knowledge, and of adding to the world's 
surplus and pleasure. 

If we attempt to investigate the laws and forces 
which govern animal growth and reproduction, we are 
necessarily brought face to face with the sciences and 
their application to reproduction, life and growth. 
The ancient authors enumerated seven of them, and 
Pope adds one more : 

"Good sense, which only is the gift of Heaven, 
And, though not science, fairly worth the seven." 

(174) 



PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SCIENCJS 175 

So many mistakes have beeu made in the application 
of science to the breeding and improving of domestic 
animals, particularly horses, and so much success has 
been attained through careful and timelj^ attention to 
the details of feeding and surroundings by men un- 
trained in science, that the fact is often forgotten that 
their successes are due to the practical application of 
science which they have unwittingly absorbed. This 
has resulted in belittling science — that is, ascertained 
truth or knowledge duly arranged, — and in giving the 
credit to "common sense." 

Such rapid advancement has been made within the 
last thirty j-ears in the breeding and rearing of horses, 
that he who would now reap the largest reward must 
not only master the most minute details of breeding, 
but must also make himself acquainted with the many 
laws and forces that are ever acting, modifying and 
limiting each other, — som6 of them knowable, some of 
them unknown in our present state of research. 

Much valuable information may be gained by study- 
ing the effects of laws with which we are only partially 
acquainted, or of which we are totally ignorant. For 
instance, we know that exercise or motion under certain 
conditions produces growth and development; under 
others the same exercise may produce weakness and de- 
cay. If we exceed the limit of exercise too far, we may 
not only fail to secure development, but may produce 
lasting injury. Observing results from certain methods, 
we try to formulate in part, at least, the laws with 
which we are only imperfectly acquainted. We should 
not discard or hold any knowledge lightly (because our 



176 THE HORSE 

knowledge is not complete) ; neither should we dis- 
card knowledge which is not absolutely correct. Most 
knowledge is only relatively correct, but, if it is accurate 
enough to aid us in our research and enlighten our 
judgment, it is still valuable. The chemist cannot 
make his analyses absolutely correct. Are they there- 
fore of no value ! The steel rule may be shortened by 
a little cool air, and lengthened by the mild rays of 
the sun; is it therefore of no value in measuring 
length and breadth because it is slightly inaccurate when 
placed under slightly changed conditions ? While the 
steel rule is never again absolutely a foot long after 
it is made, except when placed in the same temperature 
as that in which it was made, yet it varies only within 
narrow limits. So, although it is seldom absolutelj^ 
accurate, it serves the world well for all uses to which 
it is ordinarily put. 

We speak of the " science " of breeding. This term 
is used loosely, and is too often made to cover both 
the science and the practice of breeding. Science is 
usually defined as ascertained facts, truths logically 
arranged. For instance: it is a fact that like produces 
like under exactly the same conditions. If two parents 
are similar, or of nearly identical blood, and their 
environment and potency similar, their offspring will 
be similar to the parents. But it is also a fact that 
precisely the same conditions, in all particulars, are 
never present in the production of any two animals, 
and, therefore, no two animals, though from the same 
parents, are exactly alike. Thus it appears that the 
forces of reproduction and growth, food and environ- 



VABIATIONS DUE TO LAW 177 

meut, tend to produce variation. Slight variations 
along one or more lines, continued and accelerated 
from generation to generation, through long periods of 
time, may produce very marked and permanent changes. 
If the acquired characteristics, due to variation, have 
been present for a long time, and the chief conditions 
which produced the variation are continued, then such 
acquired qualities are transmitted from parent to off- 
spring, with a good degree of certainty; but perhaps 
not so surely as are the characteristics which were 
acquired earlier, when animals lived under less artificial 
conditions. Happily, the variations either for better or 
for worse, like those in the steel rule, are usually 
within very narrow limits in a single generation or even 
in several generations. If it were not so, one species 
would merge into another, breeds and families be ex- 
tinguished, and finally lost in one indistinguishable 
whole. Variations in stock-breeding, like the errors 
due to variations in the steel rule, if multiplied, often 
may produce marked results. 

The St. Louis bridge, though accurately drafted and 
accurately made, would not go together when moved 
to another and warmer temperature than that in which 
the pieces which constituted it were shaped. James B. 
Eads did not lay this trouble to chance or to sport. 
He knew that the lengthening of the girders of the 
bridge was due to an inexorable law, and, taking 
advantage of the law that governs expansion and 
contraction of iron and steel, he shortened the girders 
of the bridge by packing them in ice, thereby over- 
coming the difficulty. 



178 'J^SE HOBSU 

There is no such thing as chance, in the sense in 
which the word is often used. Laws, or modes of 
operation, reign supreme in the natural world, ever 
the same when subject to the same conditions. And 
this is not all. Every effect produced bj' the operation 
of a law is registered in some form, and somewhere. 
The vibration of the earth's particles produced by the 
eruption of Mount Pelee, in the Island of Martinique, 
were recorded in England by a most delicate and in- 
genious instrument. The particles of earth half waj' 
around the globe could not vibrate or hit each other 
without affecting all other particles of which the earth 
is composed. As breeders of horses, we are first to 
discover, if possible. Nature's modes of action and the 
effects of them. Failing in this, we attempt to decipher 
what has been registered, in order that something may 
be learned of the laws which produced the effects. 

The American bison {Bos Americanus) illustrates 
well the power of a species to perpetuate a very close 
resemblance in the individuals. This is partly due to 
the similarity of the parents, partly to similarity of 
food and conditions, and partly to indiscriminate 
breeding. If variation from any cause appeared in one 
locality during a single generation, it would not be 
likely to be perpetuated. The bison roams over a large 
territory and mixes with other herds, so that the 
conditions which produced the variation would not be 
likely to be present again, neither would the parents 
of the animal in which the variation appeared be 
likely to breed together again. The variation would, 
therefore, almost certainly disappear, or, at the most, 



EFFJ^CTS OF RESTRAINT AND DOMESTICATION 179 

would make only a feeble and imperceptible impression 
on the common herd. Constant intermingling of 
animals which roam over wide areas tends to produce 
similarity; while, if the area be small, as when animals 
are reared in enclosed parks, variation is likely to be 
perpetuated. Wild species, even when kept pure, when 
brought under domestication often show marked vari- 
ations from the original type, due not to admixture 
of blood, but to changed food and environment. Even 
when slightly restrained, as are the wild cattle of 
Chillingham Park, variations are quite common. Dar- 
win, in speaking of the variations in the Park cattle, 
says that animals nearly in a state of nature, and 
exposed to nearly uniform conditions, if not allowed to 
roam freely, or to cross with other herds, do not remain 
as uniform as wild, unrestrained animals. 

The feathered tribes usually make the first marked 
departure from the feral type in the color of the 
feathers. A good illustration of this is found in the 
many colored turkej's, all originating from a dark- 
bronzed wild turkey. Horses, cattle and pigs, when 
brought under domestication, usually vary first in form, 
although they may vary in color as well. The myriad 
departures from reproduction of exact likeness which 
we may see everywhere and at all times, do not argue 
that something has occurred without a cause, or that a 
miracle has been wrought, or that blind chance reigns 
instead of law. To perpetuate, then, the qualities and 
characteristics of a species or breed virtually intact, all 
the conditions must be made similar to those which 
prevailed in producing the breed. It should not be 



180 THE HORSE 

forgotten that horse-breeders usually aim at something 
more than simply preserving valuable qualities: they 
desire to produce variation for the better. This is 
difficult in ordinarj^ practice with animals already 
highly improved. Many are satisfied if they can repro- 
duce animals which are as good as the parents. If the 
standard of excellence were not so high, it would not 
be difficult, with our present knowledge, to make rapid 
advancement. I am speaking here of the best specimens 
of the various breeds of horses. 

The differences are usually slight in the offspring 
of well-bred animals; but, however slight they may be, 
they are worth noting and stud3dng. Just here is where 
the beginner fails. He does not lay enough stress on 
small things; and the eye and judgment, not being 
well trained, fail to see clearly or to interpret correctly 
the variations which tend toward improvement or 
deterioration. Variations, when multiplied through 
several generations, are easily discovered; but the cause 
or causes which produce slight variation in the im- 
mediate offspring are likely to elude our search unless 
extended knowledge and wide experience are possessed. 
Therefore the breeding of full-blooded animals designed 
for progenitors of their race should be in the hands 
of experts. 

In order to study the breeding of horses critically, 
the subject is divided into eight principal heads — 
Inheritance, Food, Climate, Habit, Selection, Relative 
influence of Sire and Dam, the Governing of Sex, 
and Atavism. 



INHERITANCE 181 



INHERITANCE 

Lo! what am I? A patch of things, 
Mere odds and ends of lives flung by 
From age-long, rag-bag gatherings, 
Pieced up by Fate full thriftily: 
Somebody's worn-out will and wit, 
Somebody's habits and his hair. 
Discarded conscience, faith once fair 
Ere Time, the moth, had eaten it; 
My great-grandfather's chin and nose, 
The eyes my great -grandmother wore, 
And hands from some remote — who knows i 
Perchance prehensile ancestor; 
Somebody's style, somebody's gait, 
Another body's wrist and waist. 
With this one's temper, that one's trait, 
One's tastes, another's lack of taste; 
Feelings I never chose to feel, 
A voice in which I had no voice. 
Revealing where I would conceal 
Eude impulses without a choice; 
Faults which this forefather or that 
Unkindly fostered to my ill. 
With others some one else begat 
And made the matter worser still. 
They chose, these masters of my fate, 
To please themselves, bequeathing me 
Base pleasure in the things I hate, 
Liking for what misliketh me. 
Out of the ashes of their fires. 
Out of the fashion of their bone, 
They fashioned me, my mighty sires. 
And shall I call my soul my own? 



182 TEE ROUSE 

This motley from the Past flung down; 

This work with no artificer; 

This prince, this poet, and this clown, 

Deifie, and a driveler; 

This bequeathed brain which shall conceive 

What things this borrowed frame shall do; 

This will to serve, and will to leave 

The outworn old, the untried new; 

This quick made up of all the dead. 

And this deep heart iuheiited, — 

I call these mine, and I will be 

King, emperor, tsar, and Deity! 

The tenement may like me ill. 

The garment ill -befitting be: 

I will inhabit kingly still. 

And wear my rags right regally. 

These hands shall work my will, — not hers 

Who fashioned them to other use; 

These feet fare not as he prefers 

Who shaped them, but as I shall choose; 

Mine be the words these lips shall frame ; 

And through my great-grandmother's eyes 

I front my world, not hers, and claim 

Under no dead soul's sovereignties. 

Ay, borrowed husk, head, heart and hand. 

Slave on, and serve me till we die! 

I am your Lord and your Command! 

But only God knows — what am I. 

—Grace Ellery Channing, 

Atlantic Monthly, January, 1902 

Every skilled breeder is satisfied that vigor, speed, 
beauty and all other qualities are, more or less, hered- 
itary; but, when variation appears, he is slow to search 
for the causes which have antagonized or arrested the 
law of transmission, and which, undisturbed, should 
produce close similarity. 



INHERITANCE 18 



Since pure -bred animals are now usually reared under 
similar conditions (those of the North being protected 
from the vicissitudes of climate quite as much as those 
of the South), we may study pure -bred animals from 
the Darwinian standpoint, and expect that the inheri- 
tance of every long and well-established characteristic 
will be the rule and non-inheritance the exception. 
Without criticizing any of the breeds, it may be said 
that some of their characteristics have not been well 
established, because they have been acquired in the last 
few generations. The subject of inheritance of farm 
animals is difficult and complex, since all breeds of 
domestic animals may be said to be "made-up breeds"; 
for, in the stricter sense of the word, we have no pure- 
bred animals. But this does not concern us here and 
now. Under certain rules and regulations, we have 
agreed to call certain varieties of horses thoroughbred, 
pure -bred, or full -blood; but their pedigrees need not 
be traced back very far before they end in unknown or 
mixed -blooded ancestry. 

A plausible but misleading theory of inheritance 
has been formulated as follows: The offspring receives 
one -half of its inheritance from its pairents, — that is, 
one-fourth from its male and one-fourth from its female 
parent; one -fourth from its four grandparents, one- 
eighth from its eight great -grandparents, and so on. 
Mathematically expressed, the inheritance would be 
as follows: 

Generations — 

First Second '.'bird Fourth Fifth Total 
X 1. X _l_ i_ ZJL 

2 4 8 16 S-J 32 



184 THE HOUSE 

It will be seen that one -thirty- second of the inheri- 
tance is unaccounted for in the above. This is found in 
the generations beyond the fifth. It is evident that .there 
were thirty -two ancestors in the fifth generation, and 
that the animal in the first generation gets but one- 
thirty- second of its inheritance from all of them. The 
animal under consideration has sixty-two ancestors in the 
fifth generation. It might easily transpire that some 
one of these was eminently prepotent, and if not very 
remote would probably transmit far more than its math- 
ematical proportion of its inheritance. Let it now 
be supposed that in -breeding has taken place, that the 
prepotent blood of the superior ancestors has been 
freely used in the process, and that such prepotent inbred 
blood comes down through the sire; then the offspring 
would inherit far more than one -fourth of its character- 
istics from the sire, and less than one -fourth from the 
dam. Or, suppose a prepotent animal appears in the 
second generation, the offspring might receive nearly 
all of its inheritance from this single animal. It is 
evident to every practical stock-breeder that the 
mathematical theory does not hold true. 

Inheritance is modified from generation to generation 
by change of food, climate, environment and use, or 
habit. In rare cases it may be so strong that the 
dominant characteristics persist long in spite of radical 
changes in food and surroundings. 

Characteristics which have been long present are 
more likely to be transmitted than those which have 
been but recently acquired. Characteristics which are 
similar are more likely to coalesce harmoniously than 



WHAT MAT BE INHERITED 185 

those which are widely divergent; therefore, animals 
of widely divergent form and color should not be bred 
together. To secure strong inheritance in the off- 
spring, the sire and dam should give visible evidence 
that they have been produced by breeding along par- 
allel lines. Two parallel streams of nearly the same 
volume and rapidity of flow unite harmoniously; two 
streams of unlike flow and volume, united at a sharp 
angle, produce many counter currents and unexpected 
results. 

What ynay be inherited? Nearly everything or any- 
thing. It all depends on a multitude of conditions, and 
it is impossible to know certainly, before the parents 
are united, what defects of one or both of the parents 
will be transmitted. Comparatively few blemishes, as 
ring-bone, curb, spavin, and the like, are inherited; 
but what is equally undesirable is too often transmitted 
— the lack of power of resistance. When the organs 
which lack resisting power are put to severe tests, the 
blemish which afflicted the parent, or something similar 
to it, makes its appearance. Under favorable conditions 
and absence of severe tests, especially when young, the 
offspring, though from unsound parents, may, and often 
does go through life unblemished. It is only in rare 
cases that tuberculosis is inherited; but the lack of 
power to resist the specific organism which produces 
the disease may be inherited. All this leads to the 
conclusion that pains should be taken to select such 
strains of animals for breeding purposes as are known 
to possess power to withstand, to a good degree, unusual 
strain and adverse conditions. Individuals, and some- 



186 TEE HOBSE 

times breeds and families, show endurance and resisting 
power to an unusual degree. 

May prepotency, or unusual power to transmit 
qualities, be discovered in an animal from outward 
characteristics? Not certainly. But something may be 
prophesied of the probable prepotency, or lack of it, by 
careful scrutiny of the animal; since there are certain 
outward indications which almost invariably accompany 
this unusual power. The eyes are bright, wide-open, 
alert, fairly wide apart and somewhat protruding, — or, 
at least, the reverse of sunken. The hair is fine and 
soft; the skin neither thick nor leathery, nor too thin 
and papery, nor of a flabby texture, but pliable, mellow 
and moderately thin. The bones are moderate in size 
and have the appearance of being of fine grain and 
strong, as indicated by head, limbs and feet. Such 
animals are usually symmetrical, although they may not 
be fat. In all of their movements they are vigorous, 
alert and powerful, and, above all, courageous; nervy, 
but not nervous, — all the powers being under full 
control, which gives courage and confidence and the 
ability to direct power along efficient lines. If the 
prepotent animal is a poor specimen of the breed ( poor 
animals are sometimes prepotent), then it would really 
be better if the prepotent quality were wanting, for then 
it might chance that the offspring would take after 
remote, instead of immediate ancestors. 

Characteristics which are much in advance of the 
general average are likely not to be perpetuated in full 
force through even one or two generations. "Sports," 
that is offspring which from unknown causes have made 



FACTORS OF IMPROVEMENT 187 

a wide and abnormal departure from the types of a 
breed, are difficult, and usually impossible, to perpet- 
uate. Inheritance is not all, and is never so persistent 
but that it can be greatly modified by food, climate and 
habit. He who trusts to a long pedigree alone, is cer- 
tain to be disappointed; he who trusts to food, climate, 
habit and use, to produce desired qualities, and prac- 
tices haphazard breeding, will meet with greater 
disappointments. He is wise who makes full use of all 
the factors which enter into the maintenance and 
increase of valuable qualities. 

FOOD 

Food, next to inheritance, is the most potent factor 
in the improvement of the horse. "As a man thinketh, 
so is he"; as a horse eateth, so is he. This statement 
may be too sweeping, but, when taken in connection 
with inheritance, habit and climate, it is true. All the 
energy which a horse uses is the product of food con- 
sumed. Inheritance, climate and special development by 
use may so modify the structure, both mentally and 
physically, as to make the body a superior or inferior, 
an economical or a wasteful living machine through 
which the energy is expended. One piece of machinery 
may do a certain amount of work twenty per cent 
slower than another. This difference may be due to 
putting the machine at work for which it was not best 
adapted or to faulty mechanical construction. It may 
be said, however, that the machine has no mental 
capacity, while the added efficiency of the horse is fre- 



188 TEE HORSE 

quently due to mental power or brain force. Brain work 
requires the energy of food to sustain it, — the same, in 
kind, as is required for work done by other muscular 
tissues. What really happens is that high mental 
capacity usually accompanies high muscular efficiency 
and harmony of the structure called upon to perform 
the work. The brain of the horse may be likened to 
the steam-gauge on the boiler; it indicates somewhat 
accurately the amount of energy ready for use. The 
results, or work performed, will depend largely on the 
perfection of the working parts of the engine. High 
courage usually attends great endurance, but this is 
not necessarily the case. Other things being equal, real 
efficiency is more likely to accompany superior and judi- 
cious nourishment rather than inferior nourishment. 
A few days of injudicious feeding of the trotter or 
racer, just before he makes a great effort, may lose him 
the prize. 

Food plays a most important part, not only in growth 
and development, but in the efficiency and amount of 
work as well. Some most marked results are secured by 
the too liberal as well as the too scanty feeding of many 
3'oung animals, such as pigs, calves and colts, during 
the first six months of their lives. Calves designed for 
the dairy may be greatly injured as to their future per- 
formance by being fed too liberally on concentrated 
food, or dwarfed and injured by being insufficiently 
nourished. In the same way, young colts, especially 
after they are weaned, may be handicapped for life by 
injudicious overfeeding or underfeeding. 

Judicious liberal feeding tends to increase size and 



±JFFECTS OF FOOD AND CLIMATE 189 

to produce slight variations in other directions. Food 
furnishes the material with which to produce variations; 
inheritance and use largely determine where and how 
the surplus material shall be used or stored. Liberal 
but judicious feeding and improved foods have been 
prime factors in the development of the horse, as well 
as in that of the great meat -producing animals. The 
progeny of the fleet trotter may be varied towards a 
draft -type in a few generations by feeding for increased 
weight and size and by changing habit from fast to 
slow, laborious work. Food and use not infrequently 
overpower inheritance. Uncongenial climate and inju- 
dicious feeding may prevent food from accomplishing 
its legitimate and desired end. 

CLIMATE 

Climate does not play so important a part in the 
United States in modifying animals and in producing 
variations as formerlj- , when stables were inferior and 
when it was sometimes the practice to allow horses and 
other domestic animals to find shelter around the straw- 
stack. As the forests were cleared, it was not uncom- 
mon to provide an open shed, usually facing the south 
or east, in which horses, cattle and sheep were allowed 
to battle for the place least exposed to drafts of air. 
Even if enclosed stables were built, the floor and sides 
were so open that the heat generated by the animals 
kept in them made no perceptible chapge in the 
temperature. Many of these stables were more un- 
comfortable for the animals than open sheds, or the 



190 THE HORSE 

barnyard, if it chanced to be somewhat protected from 
the winds. 

Under such conditions, climate played an important 
part in modifying the growth and structure of both 
horses and cattle. But little improvement could be 
made in animals where they were subjected for nearly 
half a year to climatic conditions as damp and rigorous 
as those found in the greater part of the eastern and 
middle states. The improvement in horses which has 
been made in the last half -century could not have taken 
place had not the rigorous climatic conditions been 
changed by the erection of suitable and better stables in 
which it is possible to radically modify environment. 
Low temperatures, especially when accompanied by 
humidity, tend to increase the protective covering of 
animals. They also tend to arrest the development 
of symmetrical top and bottom lines. The Shorthorn, 
which stands humped up for long periods, sooner or 
later transmits something of its enforced curvature of 
the spine to its offspring. Where there is constant suf- 
fering on account of cold and exposure, the hair 
thickens, the flank rises, the rear of the animal tends to 
diminish, while the front end, which contains what are 
known as the vital organs, tends to become relatively 
larger. Improve the climatic conditions so that the food 
energy will not have to be so largely expended to main- 
tain bodily heat, and there is a steady tendency to 
restore the harmony between the rear and front ends of 
the animal. If, in addition to improving climatic con- 
ditions, the food be improved, the change for the better 
becomes rapid and marked. 



SIZE MODIFIED Br CLIMATE 191 

It should be remembered, however, that inheritance 
is always playing an important part, and that even 
favorable climate and food combined cannot radically 
change conformation and characteristics until long 
periods of time have elapsed. 

Severe climatic conditions constantly tend to reduce 
size. Such reduction ceases only when the body 
structure has become adapted to all the forces acting 
upon it, or, in other words, when an equilibrium has 
been restored between energy produced and energy used. 
Natural forces do not respect man's wishes; they work 
along the lines which accomplish their purposes in the 
most economical way. Rigorous climatic conditions tend 
not only to diminish size but to eliminate highly special- 
ized qualities and to produce hardiness — the prime 
characteristics which must be perpetuated if existence is 
maintained. 

In America, serious mistakes have been made by 
placing some of the imported breeds under climatic con- 
ditions so much more rigorous than those to which they 
were accustomed as to preclude the possibility of 
securing expected results. Since we have become more 
humane in the winter-housing and treatment of animals, 
the breeds brought from a warmer climate than that in 
which they are placed in the States preserve their 
specialized qualities intact under skilful management. 
Still, there is always danger in moving animals from 
one climate to another radically different, especially if it 
be from a warmer to a colder one. 



192 THE HOBSE 

HABIT AND USE 

When one or several limbs or organs- of an animal 
are called upon to do extra work, Nature immediately 
tries to strengthen such members by providing extra 
nourishment. This extra work must not be carried 
to the point of exhaustion, or the member may become 
weakened or diseased. 

The habit of life and the work performed play 
important parts in producing change and variation in 
individuals, even in so short a period as a life -time. 
Take two brothers of nearly the same age, similar in 
looks and characteristics, and approaching their ma- 
jority, and let one lead an easy, sedentary life, largely 
within doors, while the other exposes himself to the 
sun, storms and cold, while employed in laborious toil. 
When these brothers have reached the age of sixty, they 
will be so unlike as to suggest that they might belong 
to distinct races. If the fast -stepping trotter spends his 
life in drawing heavy loads at a slow pace^ and is kept 
fat in order to secure weight, he becomes to all intents 
and purposes a draft -horse. He may preserve his fine 
head and his smallish feet, but in weight an-d movement 
he will illustrate what marked changes are wrought in a 
half -score of years of use. Or allow the well-bred dairy 
cow to nurse her own calf for a half-year, so that she 
becomes nearly dry at the end of six months, in subse- 
quent years she will fall short of her normal production ; 
whereas, if the calf had been removed and she had been 
regularly milked, the flow of milk would not only have 
been more abundant, but it would have continued much 



SELECTION 193 

longer and the normal flow of milk have been main- 
tained the following year. The family horse, overfed 
and nnder-used, soon becomes slow and logy, although 
at first he was spirited and active. 

It can be readily understood that, in order to pre- 
serve the inherited characteristics of a breed or an 
individual, the animals must not only be placed under 
similar conditions as to food and climate, but must 
retain similar habits and do similar work to that per- 
formed by the ancestors from which they sprung. 

It is difficult to discover certainly the character of the 
ancestors by an inspection of an animal; it is easy to 
determine the uses to which they have been put and 
the abuses which they have suffered. Pull use, without 
abuse, and appropriate work tend to produce variation 
for the better and to preserve and increase the efficiency 
of specialized qualities, as well as to make them perma- 
nent in time and capable of being transmitted to suc- 
ceeding generations. 

SELECTION 

It is self-evident that variation is constantly taking 
place, — sometimes for the better, sometimes for the 
worse, and that changes sometimes appear which do not 
affect intrinsic value. Most of the causes which produce 
variation are known, but the causes may not produce 
immediate noticeable changes. It may take several 
generations before the accumulated effects become 
marked. The careless breeder does not note these 
causes and their effects until degeneracy has gone so 
far as to make it advisable to introduce new blood, 

M 



194 THE HORSE 

rather than make the attempt to correct the mistake by 
using the animals which have been varying for the 
worse. 

It is not easy to determine by the subsequent effects 
the exact causes of slight variations or the exact time 
when they are introduced. There is one safe rule — 
endeavor to make all of the conditions of the animal 
superior to those which formerly prevailed; then when 
variations appear they are likely to be for the better. 
The reverse of this is equally true. Inferior conditions 
produce variations for the worse. 

Keeping these facts in mind, the breeder is ready to 
begin his selection; provided, however, he has good 
judgment and a clear-cut mental photograph of the 
animal he seeks to produce. Selecting an animal does 
not improve it. The breeder simply takes advantage of 
the variations for the better due to causes which 
antedate his choice. By selection, he seeks to eliminate 
the influence of those individuals which have varied for 
the worse or have not risen, on the whole, above the 
average. By selection, he may progress faster than he 
would if he attempted to raise the progeny of all the 
herd to a higher average level without selection. 

A herd of bison, if changed from bad conditions and 
scanty pasturage to improved conditions and abundant 
food, will, in the course of a few generations, vary for 
the better; although natural elimination is likely to be 
more active under bad than under good conditions. 
It is, then, not natural selection, but improved food and 
environment, that have produced the variations for the 
better. 



FAILURES IN ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE 195 

The farmer is usually advised to purchase the best 
male he can find and then practice rigid selection, if he 
desires to improve his herd or flock. There is either 
too much or too little in this brief recipe. The stream 
cannot rise above its fountain-head. While the intro- 
duction of a superior male into the herd may improve it 
for a short time, eventually the average of the herd will 
represent the powers for growth, development and 
production w^hich are found in the food, coupled with 
environment, use and abuse. More than this, — the herd, 
in time, may actually fall below its environment and 
food -supply, because of the introduction of the improved 
blood; since it may take several generations before the 
improved blood adapts itself to conditions less congenial 
than were those in which it was produced. In earlier 
years, many a farmer did introduce an improved male 
into his herd, but did not improve the food and environ- 
ment, and after a time found that no permanent advance 
had been made. Not seeing the cause of his failure, he 
condemned the breed to which the male introduced 
belonged, hy saying that it was a pampered, tender 
breed for which he had no use. 

If the farmers who desired to improve their herds had 
been told to select a male superior to the animals already 
possessed, and to mingle his blood with selected females, 
simultaneously improving food, care and environment, 
and then to select from the offspring, permanent better- 
ment would have been secured. After having learned 
something in the school of experience of the methods 
which must be followed to secure improvement, the 
breeder would naturally seek to make use of a still 



196 THI] HORSE 

better and presumably a higher -priced male, since he 
had learned to progressively and logically unite better 
blood, better food, better quarters, kindness and 
selection, harmoniously, giving to each factor its 
appropriate place and value. Evolution does not go 
forward by leaps and bounds, but by slow, almost 
imperceptible changes from generation to generation. 
The breeder of domestic animals would do well to follow 
Nature's modes of action. 

So far, the selection from the offspring has been dis- 
cussed, but of quite as much importance is the selection 
of the parents through which, in part, the betterment of 
the offspring is to be secured. If it is desired to secure 
offspring w^hich when mature will reach sixteen hands, 
the result would be reached far more certainly by 
breeding a female of fifteen and a half hands to 
a male sixteen and one -fourth hands high, than by 
breeding a female of fourteen hands to a male seventeen 
hands high. The progeny of animals radically different 
is seldom satisfactory. It is better to take two or three 
generations in which to attain the standard than to 
attempt to reach it at once by breeding very small and 
very large animals together. At the beginning, judi- 
cious selection is of prime importance. The one great 
mistake in horse-breeding is that of breeding large 
stallions to small mares; that is, little pains is taken to 
select such females as give promise of uniting harmo- 
niously in the offspring with the blood of the male to 
which they are bred. It all comes to this, — that moder- 
ate variations through generations produce qualities 
which are likely to be permanent and potent. 



RESULTS OF CROSSING 197 

RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF SIRE AND DAM 

Much has been written as to the relative influence on 
the offspring of sire and dam. When both parents have 
characteristics in common, there appears in the offspring 
little to indicate that one parent is more prepotent than 
the other, or that one transmits in a greater degree than 
the other special organs or specialized characteristics. 
But when animals of the same genus, but of extremely 
divergent characteristics, are crossed, — as the horse 
{Equus Gaballus) and the ass (Eqnus Asinus) — most 
interesting results are secured. When the horse is used 
as the sire, the produce — the "hinny" — takes on, it is 
said, more of the outward characteristics of the sire than 
of the dam. Its ears are smallish, the mane and tail fairly 
abundant, the foot rounded like that of the horse, and it 
neighs. The viscera and interal organs appear to be 
largely inherited from the dam. She is small, so is the 
hinny, the outward structure adapting itself to the 
internal organs. If the cross is reversed — the jack bred 
to the mare — a mule is the product. Its outward mark- 
ings and characteristics are like its sire's — long ears, 
short and stubby hair on mane and tail, a stripe over 
the shoulders, a narrow foot and the sonorous voice of 
its sire. The outward characteristics of this hybrid are 
largely from its paternal ancestors; w^hile the internal 
organs are large, like those of its maternal parent. This 
being so, the mule is larger than the hinny. In such 
violent crosses, it is certain that the sire transmits his 
external organs to the offspring more largely than does 
the dam; and the dam the internal organs, at least as to 



198 THU HOUSE 

size, more largelj- than does the sire. When animals 
which are similar are united, it is probable that the 
same principle holds true to a limited extent. * Then 
it would seem wise to select, when possible, dams of 
good size — those of large lungs, heart and viscera 
capacity — even though they may not be as close-made 
or of as fine outward form as is desired in the offspring. 
It may be confidently expected that, if a smooth, 
symmetrical, moderate -sized stallion be united with 
such a mare, the progeny will be far better as to endur- 
ance, beauty and potency than if the characteristics of 
the sire and dam were reversed. The practice of breed- 
ing large, even mammoth stallions, to small, unsyiu- 
metrical, unsound mares or to "any old thing," has 
done more to arrest improvement which should have 
been secured from the many good, home-bred and 
imported stallions than any other one thing, — possibly 
than all other adverse causes combined. 

THE GOVERNING OF SEX 

The facts observed by many reputable breeders of 
domestic animals lead to the following conclusion, — 
that the most vigorous, the most prepotent parent at the 
time of conception is more likely to govern the sex of 
the offspring than the less vigorous parent. This is 
only saying that the stronger is superior to the weaker; 
but this general law can be discovered only by being 
put to an extensive test, — such as when a large number 
of animals are bred under similar conditions. Some 
extended experiments in France indicate that, when 



VIGOR AND PREPOTENCY GOVERN 199 

sheep were observed, the first lambs were largelj' males. 
As the yeaning season progressed, the number of male 
and of female lambs were about equal, while at the close 
of the lambing season the female lambs greatly predomi- 
nated. In my own experience with five hundred Ameri- 
can Merino ewes, I found that about nine -tenths of the 
first quarter of the total crop of lambs were males. 
Then the sexes began to even up, while, in almost every 
case, the last quarter of the lambs dropped were largely 
females. Where large flocks of sheep are kept, it is 
usual to separate the rams from the flock for three 
or four months preceding the rutting period. They are 
fed liberally with such foods as experience has shown 
will produce unusual vigor. At the same time the ewes 
are kept under normal conditions or those somewhat less 
productive of vigor, since the flock is usually large and 
the pasturage and food somewhat limited. It is evident 
that under these circumstances the males, when first 
turned into the flock, will be more vigorous than the 
females. As the season advances, there being but few 
of the males, they become depleted in vigor so far as to 
fall below the vigor of the ewes. Many instances of like 
experience with flocks of sheep could be cited. 

My friend who owns an island off the coast of South 
Carolina which is stocked with cattle and swine that 
roam at will, with no care from the owners, states that 
they show marked sex -variations in different seasons. 
After a hard winter and scarcity of food, male pigs 
predominated. As they were hunted for food during 
encampment on the island, it was seldom that a female 
pig could be secured. The males, not being depleted by 



200 Tnj£ HOUSE 

nourishing young the year before, passed through 
the winter with powers less impaired than the female. 
This is the explanation that he gave me for the facts 
observed. When food became abundant in other years 
and conditions were improved, the sex of those pigs 
which were slaughtered was about evenly divided. Were 
it appropriate, many facts could be cited to substantiate 
this theory in the human family. 

However, before leaving this subject, it should be 
said that either the male or the female may be propotent 
in color alone or some other characteristic and not 
prepotent' in sex characteristics, or either one may be 
prepotent in sex characteristics alone. We are acquainted 
with many animals which persist in bearing offspring of 
one sex though bred to different males, and with some 
that persist in producing one sex as long as mated with 
the same male, but when another male is used the sex 
of the offspring is changed. 

Many theories have been advanced which some- 
times have appeared to indicate a law; but as j^et no 
law has been discovered for governing the sex of off- 
spring which holds uniformly true or which is workable. 
We may sometimes change conditions or change the 
mating of the animals and arrest the prepotent factor 
of sex or any other potent factor, and at other times no 
change of food or mating accomplishes the desired result. 
We conclude then that the stronger characteristic, 
whatever it may be, is superior to the weaker. The 
difficulty consists in determining them. If any one had 
discovered a method of controlling sex, he would have 
taken out letters patent on it long ere this. 



COPULATION, BEL ATI VE AGE 201 

ATAVISM 

Atavism is the recurrence, or tendency to recur, to 
an ancestral type, peculiarity, or disease after its disap- 
pearance for one or more generations. It is intermittent 
heredity; reversion; "dating back." 

The offspring may be affected by physical conditions 
of parents at the time of copulation, and also by the 
condition of the parent during pregnancy. It is believed 
that the first fruitful connection may sometimes have a 
marked influence on subsequent offspring. It is con- 
tended by a few that, if a full-blooded animal has been 
fruitful by reason of connection with a mongrel, there- 
after the blood of the dam is vitiated and she becomes 
incapable of producing full -blood offspring w^hen 
united with a full -blood male of her own breed. 

The relative age and vigor of parents may have a 
marked influence on the offspring. Animals which are 
overfat tend to lose somewhat the power of transmit- 
ting their highly specialized qualities and full vigor. In 
fact, animals overfat may be said to be on the verge of 
disease. Exercise, or the lack of it, in the parents may 
be a potent factor for good or evil, in reproduction. 

In highly organized animals, mental impressions at 
time of copulation, and for some time afterwards, may 
have a marked influence on th^ offspring. In most 
cases, however, mental impressions play little or no part 
in .the breeding of domestic animals. 



CHAPTER XIV 

PLAN OF BREEDING 

A GENERAL plan should be carefully thought out 
before the farmer makes the attempt to breed few or 
many horses. As the work of breeding progresses, 
many questions of detail will arise which can be most 
successfully solved as they occur. One detail has a 
bearing on others, changes are constantly taking place 
in surroundings — food available, supply of and demand 
for horses, and fashion. After the general plan is out- 
lined, he is most likely to succeed who adjusts the 
details most skilfully to the general plan, to the 
environment and to the proposed results. 

First, the man should take account of his likes and 
dislikes. He may admire the light, active horse. If 
his farm is rolling, the soil easily tilled, he may gratify 
his tastes; but he would almost certainly fail if he 
attempted to breed draft- horses. On the other hand, 
the man who occupies a stiff -clay wheat farm, and who 
from this fact may have learned to admire a powerful, 
large horse, would be foolish if he attempted to breed 
roadsters. He succeeds best who unites with his knowl- 
edge of horse-breeding a genuine love for the breed 
which he cultivates. Before beginning, call a meeting 
of the stockholders of the enterprise — the wife and 
children; their wishes should be respected, and they 

(202) 



HONESTY THE BEST FOLIC T 203 

may be able to give wise counsel. "In the multitude 
of counselors there is safety." 

The market should also be studied. Draft animals 
sell well at the end of the halter tail. Roadsters and 
coachers should receive some training, if mature, before 
they are marketed, if full values are received for them. 
The amount of money and time that may be available 
for doing this training should be considered before it 
is undertaken. The beginner should start in a small 
way, carefully. 

"Smaller boats should keep near shore, 
Larger ones may venture more." 

To get the most out of breeding horses, one should 
know something of how to buy, sell and trade, — in 
other words, acquire some knowledge of the business. 
Some men are born with horse instinct, and these 
acquire a knowledge of horses quickly. Some tuition 
will have to be paid for this knowledge, if it is not 
possessed at the start. In the long run, honesty will be 
very much the best policy. This is especially the case in 
dealing in horses. Once a reputation is made for strict 
honesty, and the market for your horses is established. 
A sharp distinction should be made between differences 
in judgment and misstatements of facts. It is surpris- 
ing how quickly the honest horseman is known and 
appreciated by purchasers in the horse market, although 
the judgment of the buyer as to value may not be in 
accord with that of the seller. Every honest transaction 
increases the selling price of every unsold horse in the 
stable, while everj^ dishonest one not only depresses 



204 TEE HORSMi 

the price of the whole stock, but diminishes the num- 
ber of customers. Having decided on the breed, — I 
cannot decide for you, — hold honestly to it.- If it is 
not the best one, make it the best, if possible. Do 
not attempt to breed a draft -trotting -coach -horse. You 
will be fortunate if you do not make enough mistakes, 
when breeding with a definite object in view, to furnish 
all of this class of horses which the market will take. 
The most difficult task of all will be to get together 
a half-dozen or a dozen good brood-mares, — but with- 
out them failure is predetermined. It is assumed that 
my reader lacks the means to purchase these animals 
outright. Even if he had, he would then, with the 
horses already possessed, have too many work -animals; 
for the mares will be able to do the summer's work, 
although they may be put to raising colts in the 
winter. One of two methods may be used to dispose 
of the geldings, unsuitable mares, the old and unsound 
of both sexes. From time to time, quietly trade or 
sell one of the undesirable animals. Give "boot" if 
necessary — money or a cow or a wagon, — but trade 
if a good and tried brood-mare is oifered; or trade 
for other live stock — cows and sheep. Then trade 
these for the brood-mare, or sell outright and take a 
good promise to pay. Put the notes in the bank as col- 
lateral security and borrow enough money to pay for 
the brood-mares. Such transactions -will result in 
developing the judgment and in increasing confidence 
in one's ability to do business. If the trader is a 
young man, he will soon acquire good "horse -sense." 
There will be some tuition bills to pay, but we seldom 



BROODMARES IN THE CITY 



205 



secure knowledge of any kind without paving the 
score. 

Man J' good brood-mares have been sent to the 
cities. They have been there on the hard pavement 




Pig. 48. A desir.ible coach brood-mare of good action and high spirits. Not ideal 
in form, but when tested for breeding purposes lias proved to be superior. 

quite long enough. Their feet would be benefited by 
the soft earth of the field. Trade a gelding for the 
mare and yet "boot." She may not be quite what you 
want, because she was not set at her life-work when 



206 TEE HORSE 

young. Nevertheless, she may be good. There aro 
many good brood-mares on the farms which have 
never been used for breeding purposes. There are a 
multitud of ways to change the heterogenous work- 
stock of the farm for at least fairly good, sometimes 
superior brood animals. One of the latter may be 
worth twenty -five to thirty cents per pound, or six 
times the price of beef on foot. My friend owns a 
mare which has performed regular and full work in 
the summer, and produced colts which, in the aggegate, 
have been sold when fairly mature for $1,700, or 
nearly $200 each. A plain grain farmer and a plain 
appearing mare; the latter suited to a distinct purpose, 
the former with acumen sufficient to make good use 
of his opportunity. (Figs. 48 and 49). 

Bescrvption of a Brood-mare. — It is impossible to 
secure a clear mental photograph of a good or superior 
brood-mare by illustrations or printed descriptions. 
The living animal must be studied long, carefully, 
patientlj^ if one is to become an expert judge. How- 
ever, some help may be secured bj^ means of pictures 
and descriptions. The brood-mare should be of good 
size, considered from the standpoint of variety or 
breed to which she belongs and the size of the progeny 
desired. Her body conformation should be rather 
open, or the reverse of pony-build. She may be, and 
often is, a shade too long in body and slightly too 
coarse. But these defects, if they are defects, may be 
corrected in the offspring through the sire. The eyes 
should be prominent, bright and well-set; the head 
fine, for the breed; neck inclined to be, if anything, 



THE COLT GIVES PROMISE 



207 



too thin, provided it be well set on the shoulders. 
Short, thick -necked brood-mares are too often dis- 
appointing. The shoulders should be rather thin, 
moderately oblique, and withers high rather than low. 




Pig. 49. A three-year-old fresh from pasture 

The back (top line) may be a trifle long if the bottom 
line is corresponding!}^ long, though a short top line 
coupled with a long bottom line is best. The hind- 
quarters should be broad and deep, neither steep nor 
flat, with hips thrown well forward. The hips and short 
ribs should not approach each other too closely. A 



208 TEH HOBSU 

brood-mare that is a little open -ribbed is preferable to 
one that is too close -ribbed. Such a structure usually 
accompanies a symmetricall}^ set tail, a broad pelvis 
and well -developed mammary glands. Symmetrical, 
clean, well-knit legs, — a little short rather than a 
little too long, according to breed, — placed rather well 
under the body, instead of on the "corners" of the 
horse, should, if provided with good feet and nerve 
power, carry the dam safely through ten to fifteen 
years of strenuous life, while imparting to her off- 
spring her own characteristics. 

Some horses have feet too large, some too small. Some 
have feet that are too low, fiat and open at the heel. 
Others have too high feet with too narrow heels. 
If a happy medium can be secured, and the feet are 
dark colored, tough and close of texture, they will not 
only be good, but will indicate that the balance of the 
body structure is also tough and fine -grained. The 
color, as has already been said, should, when possible, 
be of some shade of bay or brown, while the hair 
should be thick, short and soft. 

Having good mares, it is comparatively easy to 
select the male to which they are to be bred. The male 
should be masculine in appearance, fine, and larger 
and smoother than the female; for this is natural and 
logical if the reasoning which has already been given 
in Chapter XIII is correct. In any case, whether the 
purpose is to enlarge the progeny as compared with 
its smallest parent or to reduce size as compared with 
the largest ancestor, the change should be gradual. 
Full success may not be secured from breeding large 



A VOID RADICAL C BOSSES 



209 



males to small females, or small males to large females, 
nor when one or both of the parents are enfeebled by 
old age or by abuse and over- work or over -feeding. 
Animals which are markedly immature should not be 




Fig. 50. The draft-colt's first lesson 

Waist too small, rump a little too steep. When in good flesh and 
mature, these defects will largely disappear 

used for breeding purposes unless the object is 
primarily to direct the energies into certain specific 
channels other than reproduction, as in the case of 
dairy cows, or as may be the case when it is the 
purpose to produce a superior, heavy -milking, brood- 
animal. (See "When and How to Breed.") 

N 



210 THE HORSE 

FALL VERSUS SPRING COLTS 

In the fruit and dairy districts the pressing work 
ceases in September; in the grain -raising sections it 
is October before the farm -horse gets relief. If fall 
or winter colts are to be raised, it is evident that the 
foals should not appear until October or November in 
the former case, and November and December in the 
latter, unless there are enough animals on the farm to 
permit of diminishing the work of those which are in 
foal. However, circumstances will to a great extent 
govern this and other details. Wherever the fall work 
will permit, the time of breeding might well be 
advanced two or three months; provided, however, the 
foal does not appear when flies are cruelly annoying. 

The female is not as likely to be amorous in the 
fall and winter, as in the spring. Usually, she is 
rather thin in flesh after the summer's work. If so, 
the task of securing the desired results will be the 
easier. B^^ increasing the food, especially the grain 
ration, by giving regular but somewhat moderate exer- 
cise, and by double or single blanketing, conditions 
will be produced similar to those which prevail in the 
spring. Meantime the bowels should be kept free from 
constipation by feeding moderate amounts of succulent 
foods. 

It is often asserted that fall colts do not shed their 
hair as freely and as perfectly as do spring colts. It 
is doubtful whether this is so. 

Colts usually shed their incisor teeth about three 
months in advance of their third, fourth and fifth 



INDUCING AMOROUSNESS 211 

birthdays. Fall colts shed their teeth when grass is 
yet abundant; spring colts when on dry, winter food. 
Dentition proceeds more satisfactorily w^hen the ani- 
mals are at grass than when fed on dry food. 

PLAN FOR REARING WINTER COLTS 

Let it be supposed that a farm requires the labor 
of four horses. It may also be assumed that the usual 
number kept is seldom sufficient for performing the 
work promptly and satisfactorily in the spring. Such 
a farm should be equipped with at least five work- 
animals, four good brood-mares and one animal suit- 
able for the carriage and family use and for emergen- 
cies: it may take two or three years to secure them. 
If four brood-mares are regularly bred, two or three 
colts may be raised each year, on an average. 

Until the colts are large enough to do light work, 
the carriage -horse may be used for farm work in 
emergencies. When the colts reach from two and a 
half to three and a half years of age, they should be 
taught to do light work. 

One weakness of the horse-breeder is his apparent 
inability to sell his colts and horses as rapidly as he 
s^hould. A good way to advertise the fact that you 
have good, young horses for sale, is to drive them 
into town once or twice each week after the five o'clock 
supper. Get on a clean shirt, get the mail, and earn 
a dollar, more or less, by driving the colts; thereby 
enhancing their value by making them familiar with 
city sights and sounds. You dare not tie them in town, 



212 THE HORSE 

and therefore will have no opportunity to get a glass 
of beer. If the farmer is breeding roadsters, not in- 
frequently he will place such exorbitant prices on his 
colts as to effectually prevent the sale of them. He 
may ask three or four hundred dollars for a single 
untrained colt, while, at the same time, he may have 
reared a calf to the same age and offer it for $25; 
notwithstanding the fact that the calf has probably 
cost him one -half as much to produce as the colt. 
Ability to sell is quite as necessary as ability to pro- 
duce. Lack of either handicaps the farmer, especially 
the breeder of live stock. 

The intelligence of the farmer is augmented if he 
raises such products as require skill and Judgment in 
their production and sale. The fruit-growers are 
usually intelligent and broad men, because it requires 
high intelligence to produce good fruits and to sell 
them to the best advantage. 

If the number of colts which may be produced from 
four mares and their female progeny in ten years is 
computed, it will readily be seen that unless many 
sales are made this kind of horse-breeding will ruin 
the breeder. Just here is where many men who have 
added horse-breeding to their other activities have 
failed. A man will milk cows semi -daily for eight 
months of the year and secure from them from five to 
ten per cent profit; but when he offers a colt or a young 
horse for sale he will put a price on it which includes 
cost and fifty to one hundred per cent profit. Failing 
to sell, the animal continues to eat until it "eats up 
the owner." 



OBJECTS OF BREEDING YOUNG 213 

If the colts or undesirable brood-mares become too 
numerous and the pastures too short, trade in August 
for a pair of bob-sleds, aud get "boot." They will, at 
least, not "eat their heads off." The next winter some 
one will want the sleds. Or trade for hogs, cattle or 
sheep. These may be killed and disposed of, and the 
apparently endless chain is broken. The thrift of the 
New Euglander is due, it is said, to his skill in 
swapping jack-knives. It is even recorded that a 
family of boys traded watches among themselves one 
entire winter and each made not less than five dollars. 
There is always a person somewhere who wants the 
very thing you have, — find him. 

The two-year-old fillies which have the promise of 
developing into good brood-mares should be bred at 
about two years of age, and again at three years old. 
The}' may produce two foals each in this time, and a 
fair test will have been made of their breeding qualities. 
It is probable that their offspring will not be quite so 
good as it would have been had they been older; but 
it is of the utmost importance that they be set at their 
life-work when young if they ai-e to be developed into 
superior brood-mares. The same principle should be 
observed with brood-mares as in the production of 
dairy -cows. After the second foal is weaned they may 
be trained for work. 

If thej^ prove unsatisfactory as mothers, by proper 
feeding they may be made to take the general form of 
raares which have not produced, when they may be 
sold or exchanged, being yet in the fifth year and 
quite 5'oung enough for city use. 



214 THE HOUSE 

All this plan may appear to the young reader easy 
of execution, but it is not, — it is difficult. Difficult 
undertakings, if successful, produce liberal rewards; 
easy ones, meager compensation. Failures will be met 
with, you may get cheated in trading horses; if so, 
that will stimulate your intelligence and after a time 
the increased knowledge, the valuable business expe- 
rience and training, and the profits will be ample 
reward. Good horses are scarce and high priced. 
Milk is cheap. Then why not reduce the cow dairy 
and add a winter horse dairy and let the colts do the 
milking? 

FEEDING THE BROOD-MARE AND FOAL 

When the mare is at severe work during the sum- 
mer months, the ration should be wide, — one to seven 
or one to eight. -^ As the work lightens and time of 
parturition approaches, the ration may be narrowed; 
about one to six is appropriate. The bowels should 
not be allowed to become constipated, neither should 
they be lax. The system should be kept free from 
fever and the muscles fully supplied with water by 
feeding some succulent foods and those which tend to 
cool the system and soften the striated muscles. For 
one or two months previous to parturition, the mare 

1 A ration is said to be wide when the heat and energy constitu- 
ents of the food exceed the muscle-sustaining constituents more than 
seven times; when Jess than five times, it may be termed a narrow 
ration. These figures are not arbitrary. Nutritive ratio means the 
proportion which the proteids, muscle-sustainers, bear to the heat- 
and energy-producers. (See Appendix III.) 



RATIONS FOB BROOD-MARES 215 

should never be allowed to work on soft plowed 
ground or on muddy roads or be driven at a rapid 
pace, nor should she be used for heavy draft work. 
Unless she be free in the pasture, she will be bene- 
fited by regular, light work. 

Brood-mares, when nursing their foals, should be 
fed much as dairy cows are, — that is, for the pro- 
duction of milk. Timothy hay and corn are not good 
and economical milk -producing foods when fed alone. 
(See Appendix III.) The ration of brood-mares and 
colts should be narrow, about one to five if the 
stables are comfortable. If the temperature in the 
stable remains down to zero or below for considerable 
periods of time, then the ration should be widened to 
one to seven, or even one to eight, by adding con- 
centrated carbonaceous foods. Rather wide rations 
should be fed in the stables which are over -venti- 
lated — draughty. It is wise to feed some succulent 
food (carrots are best), even if the mare is not giving 
milk. Matured apples, potatoes and good corn silage 
may be fed in limited quantities. Bright mixed clover 
and timothy hay, if fed with judgment, should pro- 
vide all the needed roughage. Better feed bright 
straw with nitrogenous grain rations to balance it 
than to feed overripe or musty and dirty hay. 

For a mare of 1,100 pounds, nursing a foal, the 
following would constitute a good and sufficient daily 
ration as long as the foal subsists entirely on its 
mother's milk: (When it has passed that period, it 
should be tied during feeding time and fed in a sep- 
arate manger.) 



216 THE EOBSE 

Mixed hay 15 pounds. 

Wheat bran (or its equivalent) 5 pounds. 

Oats 5 pounds. 

Carrots 8 pounds. 

This ration should be increased or diminished as 
the condition of dam and foal seems to demand. If 
the hay has a large proportion of bright clover, it is 
all the better, and, in this case, cracked corn may 
well be substituted for part of the oats. Roots are 
desirable in this ration, both because thej^ tend to 
stimulate the flow of milk and because they are con- 
ducive to good health in dam and foal. 

The colt, up to the time it is called on to perform 
service, should receive a narrow ration, — one of about 
one to five or one to five and a half. 

There are two critical periods in the life of the 
foal, — the transition period when its food is being 
changed from the mother's milk to a partial or entire 
ration of solid food, and the time when it changes its 
milk-teeth for permanent ones. 

If the dam becomes pregnant on the ninth day 
after she has brought forth j-oung, or soon after, her 
milk will decrease, as time goes on, more rapidly than 
it would if she had not become so. Therefore, if the 
dam becomes pregnant, the foal should have its milk 
supply of food supplemented by an extra portion of 
palatable, easily digested, green and dry food. The 
foal should be weaned when it is three to four months 
old, if the dam is pregnant; if she is not, it may 
nurse somewhat longer. If, for any reason, the colt 
begins life in the spring, then the time for weaning 



CABE OF FOAL AND DAM AT WORK 217 

it will be when the flies are most annoying, the sun 
fiercest, pastures scant, the grasses dry and more or 
less innutritions. It is cruel to separate the young 
things from their dams and turn them out at this time 
of the year to fight for their lives. Far better, place them 
in darkened box -stalls until the flies have departed. 

Water should be offered in the winter twice and in 
summer thrice daily. The drinking water in the win- 
ter will be most acceptable if raised to a temperature 
of 98 degrees Fahr., though this is not imperative. 

A roomy box -stall should be provided for the mare 
and foal; one ten by fifteen feet in the clear will 
suffice, except for large draft -mares. When the foal 
is a few days old, its dam may be led out of the stall 
daily. At first she should not be separated from her 
offspring but for a few minutes at a time; the time of 
each successive separation may be increased until it 
will be safe to use the mare for two or three hours 
at a time. The blood of the mare should not be over- 
heated, nor should the foal be allowed to nurse when 
the mare is over -warm. A good plan is to allow the 
mare a liberal breathing spell at the far end of the 
field, with her head away from the barn, a half -hour 
or so before she comes to the stable. If this does not 
result in her cooling off, then it will be better to 
relieve the udder of some of the milk before returning 
her to the stable and her foal. 

The foal should not be allowed to follow its dam 
when she is at work. The mare and foal would better 
be turned into a field or paddock during the pleasant 
weather a few hours each day in the Avinter, and at 



218 TEE nOBSE 

night in the summer after having eaten their usual 
grain ration in the stable. Mr. F^. S. Peer, in his 
interesting book on "Soiling, Ensilage and Stable Con- 
struction," recommends soiling brood-mares and foals 
during fly time and turning both out at night. 
He recommends feeding oats and peas, also alfalfa. 

In summer, darken the stables and exclude the 
flies as far as possible. Preserve the rotund appear- 
ance and the "colt flesh" of the foal until it disap- 
pears naturally, when eight to nine months of age. 
A stunted colt means a handicapped horse. 

The fall colt. — By the middle of May, or before, 
will have been weaned, will have all of its incisor 
milk teeth, and will make rapid growth without con- 
centrated food when turned out to pasture. 

We may now sum up the transaction: The brood- 
mare has earned by her work her own and her foal's 
food and, in addition, enough to pay an ordinary bill 
for services of stallion. The value of the colt, when 
weaned, will usually range somewhere between thirty 
and one hundred dollars, the larger part of which will 
be profit. After the foal has been turned to pasture, 
it will require but little attention or grain, either 
summer or winter. The cost of its food will usually 
be between fifteen and twenty -five dollars per year. 
The colt, unless thoroughbred or trotter, may be made 
to earn its keep after it is three years of age. 

Note. Colt — the male offspring of the mare when less than 
five years old. At five, the name changes to gelding or stallion. 
Filly — the female offspring up to five years of age or less, after- 
ward a mare. The word eolt is also used generieally for a male or 
female, under five years of age. Foal — a young colt of either sex. 



SIGJYS OF APPBOACHING PARTURITION 219 

PERIOD OF GESTATION AND PARTURITION 

The normal period of gestation may be placed at 
three hundred and forty days, though it varies in horses 
as it does in all other species of mammals. Veterinary 
writers usually place the minimum period at three 
hundred, and the maximum at four hundred days, for 
mares. Some breeders believe that if the normal 
period of gestation is exceeded it indicates the proba- 
bility of a male colt. 

If there is more than one mare to be bred, the stint- 
ing of them as near together as possible will diminish 
the work of the care-taker at foaling time. As the 
time of parturition approaches, an attendant should be 
close at hand, both daj^ and night; and several foals 
and mares can thus be cared for with the minimum of 
extra attention. 

The period of gestation being variable, the mare 
should be closely watched as her normal time of bring- 
ing forth young approaches. There are signs of the 
near approach of parturition which, though not infal- 
lible, give indication of near delivery. The udder may 
become greatly distended, especially in the morning, 
but exercise usually reduces it. The teats seldom 
become large and plump more than two or three days 
before the foal is dropped. A large udder does not 
necessarily imply near approach to delivery. The waxy 
substance which closes the ends of the teats usually 
loosens and allows the milk to escape about one day 
prior to the birth of the foal. Sometimes the foal is 
born before there is sufficient flow of milk to sustain 



220 THE HOBSE 

it, ill which case resort must be had to the nursing- 
bottle. About one week before parturition occurs, a 
shrinking and falling away of the muscles of the buttock 
near the root of the tail takes place. 

The mare's milk is relatively poor in fat and protein 
and rich in sugar. If cow's milk must, for a time, be 
substituted for the mare's, in part or in whole, that of 
a fresh young cow should be used. It may be modified 
by adding a little water to reduce the per cent of fat 
and protein, and a little sugar that the modified milk 
may be similar in constituents to the dam's. The tem- 
perature of the milk, when fed, should be 98° to 100° 
Fahr. In cold weather there is danger that the milk, 
while being used, will fall below the proper tempera- 
ture. To obviate this, wrap thick, hot, woollen cloths 
around the bottle. About one -fourth to one -third of 
a pint of the modified milk may be given every two 
hours, gradually reducing it as the mother's milk 
becomes available. 

The colostrum, or first milk after parturition, as 
already shown, tends to move the foal's bowels, which 
is beneficial. The modified milk, on the other hand, 
tends toward constipation; therefore the bottle-fed foal 
should be given a mild phj^sic. 

The bowels of foals which nurse their mothers may 
be moved by administering to them two to four ounces 
of unboiled linseed oil or the same quantity of castor 
oil, or by an injection of water at a temperature of 
100° F.; or administer to the dam one pint of either 
of the above-named oils. The feeding of succulent 
foods tends to hasten the flow of milk after parturition; 



THE BOY BE A BOY AXD THE COLT A COLT 221 

dry, carbonaceous foods, to delay the milk flow. (For 
teething", see Chapter XV.) 

The foal should not be petted, but kindness and 
firmness should be used in handling it. Sometimes the 
attempt is made to educate the foal beyond its ability 
to receive instruction. It is a mistake to attempt to 
educate either boys or foals above their capacity. The 
colt trained to all the ways of mature horses is sure 
to be put to horse -work too young. Let the boy be a 
boy, and the colt a colt. While the foal is yet with its 
dam, it should be taught to lead and to allow its feet 
to be handled. The paramount object in all kinder- 
garten work with the foal is to teach it prompt obedi- 
ence and to inspire it with courage and confidence. It 
should be taught to follow unhesitatingly when it is led. 
It should not be allowed to get its legs entangled in 
stable floors, bridges or fences, and it should never be 
purposely frightened. The colt and the fill}', as well as 
mature animals, discern quickly a timid, hesitating or 
incompetent attendant or driver. As the attendant is, 
so is the future mature animal likely to be. Teach the 
foal but little; but what little education it does receive 
should be so thorough that it will be retained through 
life. Young colts are nervous; endeavor to strengthen 
their nerves by implanting confidence, which tends to 
allaj^ nervousness. 

Much space has been given to the brood-mare and 
her offspring, because these are the foundations upon 
which success or failure rests. But it will be necessary 
to add something by way of suggestion as to the 
business of breeding horses, selecting breeds to suit 



222 THE HORSE 

environment and use, and how to dovetail the breeding 
and rearing of a few colts with the manifold activities 
of a diversified agriculture, carried on in a diversified 
climate on radically different soils. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE BEGINNER 

A clearly defined plan of what is desired to accom- 
plish should first be made. To do this, a good knowl- 
edge of the horse and horse-breeding should be secured 
from all available sources. Breeding establishments 
should be visited, and the successes and failures noted. 
The beginner should become acquainted with successful 
and distinguished horse-breeders, — in fact, become a 
pupil for a few hours or a few days, of those men 
who, above all others, are able to teach. All of this 
preparation and more is desirable, even if but a few 
eolts are to be bred yearly on the farm devoted to 
mixed husbandry. 

It should be clearly kept in mind that, from this 
time on, none but superior horses will sell at remu- 
nerative prices. The man who is able prefers his own 
carriage to the street -car; but everybody prefers the 
street-car to a carriage drawn by a "lame, woolly 
horse." Do the best w^e can, there will always be 
enough mistakes in horse - breeding to supply the 
demand for cheap hack-about animals. I doubt if the 
market w^ill ever be overstocked with superior animals 
— roadsters, coach-, saddle- and draft -horses. 

For all except the few professional horse-breeders, — 
who should confine themselves to the production of 



ADAPTATION OF BEE EDS 'fO ENVIRONMENT 223 

thoroughbreds, full-bloods and standard-bred animals, 

— the following suggestions maj^ be of value: 

Care should be taken to select the breed which best 
suits the farm, the local markets and the tastes of the 
breeder. Roadsters naturally belong on land devoted 
to grass and the dairy industry. Here but little plow- 
ing and other hard work will be required, and the 
necessity of reaching the market town, the station or 
the creamery, daily, indicates that a light, quick- 
moving horse, especially if the country is rolling, 
would be best. 

The coach -horse may well be bred on farms which 
require a somewhat larger horse than the dairy farm, 
but not so large as the grain farm. Coachers are well 
adapted to the fruit farm, with one exception, — they 
are too tall to be used to the best advantage in the, 
tillage of orchards. 

Farms devoted largely to grain -raising, unless the 
land is light in character, call for heavy horses. Here 
the draft -horse finds his true place while he is acquiring 
age and solidity before he reaches his final destination 

— the busy city. Mature horses are for the city, 
young horses for the farm. 

The blood-horse is not well adapted to farm labor. 
Few of them are required; therefore, the farmer carry- 
ing on several lines of activity should not attempt to 
breed this high -mettled horse, even if he is beautiful. 

The rearing of horses for the purpose of securing 
the highest class of animals — those which are to be 
used largel}' for recreation — should always be in the 
hands of a comparatively few skilled horsemen. If the 



224 THE HOESE 

farmer engaged in many enterprises has use for a well- 
bred roadster, or one with a long line of distin- 
guished ancestors, he will find it cheaper in the end 
to purchase such a horse than to attempt to breed and 
rear it. 

Should the farmer engaged in a more or less mixed 
agriculture attempt to breed and raise horses? Should 
many of the dairymen part with a few of the poorer 
cows and in time breed colts to take their places in 
the stalls! Would it be wise for most grain farmers 
to replenish their work -stock and have one or more 
spans of horses to sell each year? To all these questions 
the answer is emphatically, yes. Some farmers appear 
to have but one idea, viz., that the town or city is the 
place to buy things, even horses; when cities and vil- 
lages should be looked upon by the farmer as places 
to sell things, and to buy only what cannot well be 
produced at home. 

It is said that the horse is to be supplanted by 
mechanical contrivances, which will take his place in 
the street, the field and for recreation. It is also con- 
tended that horses are too expensive, in that they 
require feed and care when not at work; while the 
bicycle, the automobile and the street-car require no 
care when not in use. The last argument may be met 
with the fact that nearly all classes of machinery and 
appliances rust out and depreciate when not in use 
faster than when they are constantlj^ employed. 

Formerly, horses were used extensively during the 
winter months. Cord -wood, logs and various obstruc- 
tions to tillage had to be removed. They were also 



COLT BAISING PROFITABLE 225 

used extensively for freighting and for travel. All 
these primitive conditions are passing away and most 
of the farm -horses are now idle for nearly half of the 
year. To economize, they are kept on coarse and innu- 
tritions foods and have little or no exercise. All this 
results in soft muscles, weakened vitality, soft and 
distorted feet; and in all ways the horse becomes, 
during the winter, more or less incapacitated for the 
difficult spring work. Can these conditions be im- 
proved? I think they can; and the following some- 
what specific directions, if carried out, will, it is 
believed, materially increase profits and better con- 
ditions. 

Brood-mares should be kept on the farms to a 
much greater extent than they are, and fewer mares 
should go to the city. None but mature horses of not 
less than six to seven years of age should be used on 
pavements; while the brood-mares and the young 
animals, with their immature and soft bones and mus- 
cles, find a congenial home in the green pastures and 
on the soft, moist earth of the plowed field. 

We believe that the breeding and rearing of horses 
by farmers who are engaged in mixed farming, where 
three or more farm- and driving -animals are kept for 
each one hundred acres of land, can be made profit- 
able. It costs about fifteen to twenty -five dollars more 
to breed and rear a colt up to the age of three years 
than it does to rear a heifer to the same age. The colt 
may sell for seventy-five to one hundred dollars, while 
the heifer, unless she be pure and highly bred, may 
bring thirty -five dollars. The farmer whose time is 

O 



226 THE HOB Si] 

occupied in carrying on several lines of activity, such 
as grain, fruit and berry industries, would better not 
attempt to breed the larger varieties of pure-blooded 
animals. For him the breeding of grade cattle, sheep 
and horses is likely to be more remunerative than the 
purchasing of them when wanted, or the breeding of 
pure animals, w^hich necessitates large expenditures for 
foundation stock. Most farmers would better master 
the art of successful live-stock breeding by the pro- 
duction of grades. If eminently successful in this, it 
is easy to change to the breeding of pure-blooded 
animals when the principles and practices of breeding 
are mastered. The breeding of superior grades pre- 
supposes that the dams are selected with a specific 
purpose in view, and that their sires are pure-blooded 
animals selected from the stables of those whose chief 
business is to breed and rear superior pure-blooded 
animals endowed with strong, specialized characteris- 
tics. It is no uncommon thing to see horses with 
draft bodies and roadster limbs and feet, or with these 
characteristics reversed. Some have large, ill -shaped 
heads and legs and beefy shoulders, with the trotter's 
loins and hindquarters. Too often, the feet and limbs 
are not well adapted to the body- weight or the work 
which the horses are called on to do. In pioneer days, 
oxen were largely used for farm work; but, when the 
forests were cleared away and the country lad had 
outgrown his homespun suit, he longed for more 
rapid transit than could be secured even from his 
yoke of frisky steers. 

As yet the true draft -horse was not thought of. 



THE MOBGAN HOBSE 227 

The desire was to secure a quick -moving, pleasure- 
giving, saddle- and road -horse. In New England, the 
Morgan horse came to supply a long -felt want of 
bright farm boj's. But the fitness of the horse of that 
period for agricultural work was not entirelj^ lost sight 
of. The boj'S were looking for a horse that could out- 
trot, out-run, out-jump any other horse, and could 
pull anything that had one end loose. The Morgan 
horse came nearer to fulfilling these requirements than 
any other horse of that period. In most sections of the 
country there were few well-bred, prepotent horses, 
like the Morgans, for improving the nondescript farm- 
horse. It is only within the last part of the nine- 
teenth century that an intelligent grasp of the funda- 
mental principles of breeding has been secured bj' a 
few; and a fairly clear comprehension of the reproduc- 
tion and improvement of domestic animals has not yet 
been secured by the great majority of breeders, although 
many farmers are breeders of horses. The lack of 
adequate knowledge of the principles which should 
govern in the breeding and rearing of horses is appar- 
ent in the multitude of unsymmetrical, inefficient horses 
seen alike in country and city. Had not progressive, 
far-seeing horsemen imported numbers of the best 
animals of Europe, the horses of America would be 
more inferior than they are — perhaps as poor as are 
those of China. 

It is only in the last decade that the farm -boy has 
had any opportunity for securing instruction in the 
science of breeding good horses. As yet, but few have 
availed themselves of even the meager provisions which 



228 THE HOBSE 

are offered. The wonder is that the horses are as good 
as they are. The native ability of the American boy, 
the abundance of suitable food and a propitious climate 
have done much to arrest deterioration of the horse 
when in the hands of careless owners. 

In some localities, the combined influences of food, 
climate and skill of the breeder, have improved the 
horses, without the aid of a liberal admixture of 
imported animals of acknowledged superior qualities. 
Under the best conditions, many superior horses have 
been bred from animals of mixed blood, — that is, from 
those whose ancestry may be traced to several breeds 
or to no breed. While this careless mating of animals 
of quite different characteristics is not to be recom- 
mended, yet it must be said that many fine horses have 
been produced by this effort to breed a general -purpose 
horse. In older countries, the various breeds of horses 
are soon adjusted to the localities and conditions best 
suited to their specialized qualities. In a new country, 
like America, too often the heavy horse is found in the 
rough dairy districts and the light one on the tenacious, 
heavy -clay grain farms. In time, horses will be bred 
not only for special purposes but to suit the climate, 
soil and local conditions. True, no hard-and-fast lines 
can be drawn, but the time will come when the light 
roadster will find no place on the heavy grain lands, nor 
will the draft animals be used for carriage and road 
work. 

During the last twenty -five years, the increasing 
heavy traffic of our numerous cities and villages has 
demanded more and heavier horses than were formerly 



BETTER HORSES FOR THE FUTURE 229 

required. This demand has been met by the importa- 
tion and breeding of large numbers of Clydesdales and 
Percherons and a few others of less -known draft- 
breeds from Europe and Canada. The growing com- 
mercial cities of the West, especially Chicago, have 
also furnished a good and increasing demand for 
heavy horses, until within the last few years. The 
breeders of Illinois responded quickly, and for a 
time this single commonwealth contained nearly one- 
tenth of all of the horses of the United States. Not- 
withstanding the large numbers bred and imported, 
prices for good horses remained steady and remunera- 
tive for a long time. Recently, the great production of 
horses on the prairies and the introduction of electricity 
and steam-power, both being utilized for the transpor- 
tation of goods and passengers, have resulted in check- 
ing the demand and in lowering prices. In extreme 
cases, horses were sold at ruinous prices or slaughtered 
from humanitarian reasons. In some cases the 
slaughtered animals were packed and marketed for 
food. 

At the present time, the demand has overtaken the 
supply, and good horses, bred for special purposes, 
again bring remunerative prices. In the future, not so 
many horses per thousand inhabitants will be required 
as formerly, but there will always be a large place in 
America for the horse. Nothing can drive him from the 
streets of the city or the fields of the rural districts. 
But, from this on, purchasers will be more critical than 
formerly, and hence a better class of horses and those 
of specialized characteristics will be demanded. 



230 THE HORSE 

Something of the history of the horse and the con- 
ditions in America which have tended to produce large 
numbers of varied characteristics have been discussed. 
It is ascertained that no native horses were found on 
the continent and that a large number of horses of 
varied qualities have been imported; that these have 
been bred, in many cases, with little care and judg- 
ment. As might have been predicted, our horses at 
the present time have many characteristics. Few of 
them are homogeneous, — that is, little care has been 
taken until recently to breed for special purposes and 
for uniform characteristics; hence, most of the horses 
are not likely to produce uniform offspring when bred 
together. However, when coupled with pure -bred and 
full -blood horses more uniform characteristics are 
likely to appear. There are some compensations for 
this unstable blood, for it can be easily molded and 
directed into well-defined lines by the admixture of 
well-bred horses of prepotent qualities. Happily, we 
already have large numbers of most excellent thorough- 
bred and full -blood sires. From these, selections can 
easily be made. It will not be necessary to import 
large numbers of foreign horses, to secure those worthy 
of a place at the head of the breeding establishments. 

In selecting a stallion, the beginner should be careful 
and not be led astray by a fragmentary pedigree with 
one or two high-sounding names, five or six generations 
removed. Sometimes the name of a noted horse, as 
Flying Childers, appears at the end of a pedigree. The 
blood of a noted horse is supposed to impart great value 
to the animal whose pedigree in the fourth or fifth 



BETTER FOOD, ENVIRONMENT AND BLOOD 231 

generation goes back to one or two more or less noted 
ancestors. If the distinguished blood has not been 
fortified by some inbreeding, by the tenth generation 
the offspring would contain but one part of the dis- 
tinguished blood to 1,023 parts of blood from other 
sources. Surelj^ but few valuable qualities of a single 
remote distinguished ancestor would be likely to appear 
in the offspring. It is not wise to lay too much stress 
on the value of the blood of remote ancestors, which 
has been diluted many times. The improvement of 
the horse, where he has been improved, has been due 
largely to three principal causes: improved food, bet- 
ter environment and more rational use and training, 
and the infusion of new and better blood. 

A man who wished to stint his mare was asked if 
he wanted to inspect the stallion. "No," he said, "I 
have inspected his colts." So the beginner should 
inspect the get of a horse, if possible, before he 
patronizes him. 



CHAPTER XV 

JUDGING HOBSES 

The purchaser should know something of the an- 
cestors of the animal under consideration, as a horse 
may have inherited characteristics and specialized 
qualities which cannot be discovered until the animal 
has been used for some time. Only in rare cases has 
the purchaser an opportunity before buying to drive 
the horse enough to discover all of its desirable or 
undesirable qualities, or its probable future develop- 
ment. Therefore, the breedng of the animal, or, in 
other words, the pedigree, written or unwritten, should 
be fairly well known, when possible. 

The selling of horses gives the owner great oppor- 
tunity to indulge in exaggerated statements, even to 
misrepresent and to skilfully conceal defects and the 
true age of the horse without becoming legally liable. 
The seller may offer to guarantee the animal to be 
sound and free from vicious habits; but even then 
there are usually loopholes left in the guarantee through 
which the seller may crawl by the aid of a lawyer, if 
he leave his conscience behind. It is often wise first 
to investigate the pedigree of the man offering a horse 
for sale before looking up the history and pedigree of 
the horse, especially if he has bred and raised the animal 
under consideration. 

(232) 



THICKS OF THE TRADE 233 

If the animal has passed through many hands, 
remaining with no owner any considerable length of 
time, it is safe to conclude that there is some radical 
fault or blemish which is not easily discoverable. If a 
horse is purchased of a thoroughly reliable dealer or 
breeder, it is only fair that something of the price of 
the animal be considered as representing the reputation 
of the seller. One can afford to pay more for a purchase 
from a well-known, reputable horseman than from a 
stranger. 

The horse should be led out of the stable slowly. 
While this is being done, stand at some little distance 
in front of the animal. Little defects, such as slight 
lameness, may be detected if the animal is not excited. 
Some horsemen make it a practice to excite their horses, 
even when standing in the stalls, by sharp words and 
a liberal use of the whip. All this tends to make the 
horse hold his head high, to forget for the time the 
pain in an unsound foot or limb, and to appear alert, 
spirited and beautiful. These little tricks of the trade 
are sometimes seen at professional horse sales. 

In judging horses, four ideas are paramount: abil- 
ity to perform the service desired, reliability, endur- 
ance, and symmetry and beauty of form. True service 
consists in using energy economically, that it may give 
satisfaction to the owner, whether the energy be 
expended in moving heavy loads or in covering the 
greatest distance in the shortest possible time. Horses, 
then, should be selected with the view of securing the 
results desired in the most economical manner. Since 
they are put to a variety of uses and are placed under 



234 THE HORSE 

greatly varying conditions, it follows that they should 
have widely different characteristics if they perform the 
different kinds of service satisfactorily. The horse 
should, therefore, not only be good but also be suited 
to the service he is called upon to perform. He should 
be trustworthy, that is, free from vicious habits. 
Utility is not all, however; beauty in the horse counts 
for much. Many horses are kept neither for laborious 
work nor for fast driving. The family horse is the 
most conspicuous type of this class. A large number 
of horses besides the true family horse are not called on 
for either laborious work or for rapid driving. Beauty 
or symmetry of form in all this class counts for more 
than either superior strength or speed if they be trust- 
worthy. But what is beauty ? On a true roadster a 
neck with straight or concave top line would be appro- 
priate, and, because appropriate, beautiful; but such a 
shaped neck on a draft -horse would not only offend 
the eye but be incongruous. Beauty, then, may, be of 
two kinds — that which is beautiful because appropriate, 
and that which exhibits the blending of forms or lines 
or colors so harmoniously that the thought of abstract 
beauty is emphasized above the idea of mere utility. 
So the horse may be valued for the highest beauty 
consistent with greatest usefulness, or for attrac- 
tiveness in form, color and action. Fortunately, 
beautiful, useful and appropriate qualities may be com- 
bined to a large degree in a single animal; because, 
where all parts of the horse are symmetrical and 
adjusted to serve in the best manner the purposes for 
which the horse is maintained, many lines of beauty 



COLOR OF HORSES 235 

will necessarilj^ be present. A good draft-horse may be 
beautiful, though not so beautiful as a Kentucky 
saddle-horse. 

Advancing civilization demands not only a useful, 
but a beautiful horse, and the breeder is wise who now 
pays much attention to the quality of beauty, even if 
the horses he is raising are designed to do laborious 
work. The color of the hair and its texture, as well as 
symmetry and temper (for a horse maj^ have a "beauti- 
ful " temper) , may add to or detract from the beauty of 
the animal and its value and selling price, whether 
draft -horse or roadster. All that has been said is to 
emphasize the need of producing in the future not only 
better, but more beautiful horses. 

The colors of horses may be either beautiful or strik- 
ing. The calico, or piebald horses, when seen on the 
street or under a circus tent, certainly attract attention; 
but persons of good taste usually select horses of solid 
colors. Only in rare cases are unusual colors preferred, 
and then for the purpose of advertising or attracting 
business, or for the delectation of children. Bright 
bay, seal -brown and dark chestnut are the colors pre- 
ferred, because they are not only beautiful but usually 
do not fade in hot weather. Horses of these colors are 
more easily kept presentable than light -colored ones, 
and in old age their coats do not become unsightly, — 
that is stained, "flea-bitten" or rusty. Black horses 
seldom retain the full brilliancy of their coat; when 
exposed to the sun, the black often changes to a dirty, 
unsightly brown. It is believed that darkish skin, hair 
and hoofs have the power to resist some of the skin, 



236 THE HOUSE 

leg and hoof troubles to a greater degree than those of 
light colors. Many think that dark -colored animals, 
like brown men, are able to withstand adverse condi- 
tions better than those of light color. Be this as it 
may, it is safest to select animals of strong colors with 
dark points. 

The size of the horse is sometimes an important 
factor in determining price, or rather the amount which 
can be realized for him. Large horses, other things 
being equal, usually command a higher price than those 
of medium size, and those of medium size more than 
small ones. But the largest types of horses, be they 
draft, coach or roadster, are more difficult to produce, 
and when produced are more in danger of becoming 
unsound than medium -sized ones. As these pages are 
for the farmer, and not for the professional breeder, the 
advice is not to attempt to produce monstrosities or 
even the largest types of any class of domesticated 
animals. Good profits are seldom secured by rearing 
horses which weigh a ton, or cows which tip the scales 
at sixteen hundred pounds, or pigs which weigh half as 
much as horses do. One escapes a multitude of disap- 
pointments by holding on to a little good "horse -sense." 

It might be thought that judging and selecting 
horses would be an easy task, since, unlike the cow 
and sheep, the horse is prized largely for his stored 
energy; but the conditions under which he must exert 
his powers are so varied; the first cost and the keep 
of a horse are so great; he is so liable to become 
unsound, so utterly useless when incapacitated for 
work, so disappointing if bad tempered or without 



A FHW GROUPS OF HORSES 237 

temper; that the judging of horses becomes exceed- 
ingly difficult. It seems that some directions "as to how 
one may be least cheated when purchasing a horse " 
should be given. 

Horses naturally fall into a few groups. The draft- 
horse of laborious work, the coacher, the roadster, 
the runner (thoroughbred), the saddle-horse and the 
children's horse or pony. Some of these groups over- 
lap each other, and, while a good roadster or 
thoroughbred may make a tolerable saddle-horse, they 
cannot be first-class in their own group and also 
first-class in another group. There is still another 
class of horses, which does not belong to any group. 
They are nondescripts, that is a mixture of unknown 
blood or mixed blood in unknown quantities; careless 
breeding seldom produces valuable animals. An animal 
with no marked or striking characteristics in any 
direction never attracts a good horseman. 

In judging a horse, one should first classify him — 
that is, think of him as belonging to some one of the 
groups; for an animal may be good if used for one 
purpose and verj' poor if used for another. However, 
there are some characteristics which all horses should 
have in common; therefore our first discussion may 
be along general lines. 

It is desirable that all horses should have good 
eyes, sound limbs and feet, good temper, and be free 
from serious blemishes and vicious habits. 

It is far easier to detect some blemishes and some 
objectionable traits if the animal be examined when 
he is quiet. First notice the horse in the stable. If 



238 



THE HORSE 




Fig. 51. Cow hocked. 



he stands with one front foot at ease, that is, pointed 
to the front, he is unsound somewhere in his front 

limbs or shoulders, or in both. 
Sound horses invariably stand with 
their front feet in such positions 
that the weight will be borne 
equally, or nearly so, on both feet. 
Not so with the hind limbs; for 
a horse often stands with nearly 
all his posterior weight thrown on 
one leg while resting the other, 
and, while he may be unsound, 
such habit is usually not proof of 
it. A horse may be sound and yet 
be so awkwardly put together as to 
greatly reduce value and price. 
The purchaser, after having ex- 
amined the horse in the stable, 
should have him led out quietly 
into an open space. Here the 
eyes should be critically exam- 
ined. If the sunlight is bright, 
the hat may be held above the 
eye to cut off the dazzling rays 
of the sun while the eye is being 
observed. It is usual to wave 
the hand in front of the eye as 
an additional test; but the rapid 
movement of air in front of the 
hand may cause even a blind horse to wink. A better 
method is to approach the e^e with the hand, in a nearly 







Fig. 52. A pointer. 



MAJOB AND MINOB DEFECTS 



239 



horizontal position, and with all the fingers, except the 
index finger, closed. 

Before proceeding farther, it may be stated that 
defects and blemishes should be classified as major 
and minor. Many little imperfections are to be found 
in even the best of horses, but these 
may not seriously reduce values or 
usefulness. The ear may be a shade 
too large, the forehead a little too 
narrow or the nostrils not so thin and 
open as desired; but these all sink 
into insignificance beside curby legs, 
calf hocks and poor feet. A slight 
thickening of the skin, small round 
puffs and even more pronounced 
blemishes may be ignored, if they,..,^ 
are not located at dangerous points ^^^ 53 Reversion to 
and have the appearance of being original type. 
quiescent. While a critical examination of all parts 
of the horse should be made before purchasing, it is 
believed that even the boy on the farm will be able 
to distinguish between major and minor defects, now 
that attention has been called to them. 

Hazel -colored ej^es are believed to be better than 
dark ones. Bright, prominent open eyes are better 
than those which appear flattish and dull. If the 
opening for the eye has the appearance of a narrow 
slit cut bias, the horse is said to be pig-ej^ed. If, in 
in addition, the eyes be set too near the butt of the 
ear and too near together by reason of a narrow fore- 
head, the horse is likely to be an untrustworthy 




240 



THE HOBSE 





"lunkhead." Though technically sound, horses that 

have the appearance of the photos, Fig-s. 54 and 55, are 

to be avoided, as it would be safer to 

walk than to ride behind them. 

The ears and their position on the 

head may serve to assist in determining 

the disposition and some other qualities. 

They should be neither too close nor 

too far apart, neither lopped nor too 

sharply pointed backward. 

A disproportionately large head is 

always objectionable, and especially so 

when found on horses designed for speed 

or for uses where 
beauty counts for 
much. The head, 
as seen from the 
front, should look 
broad between the eyes, rise 
rather high at the top between 
the ears, and have the appear- 
ance of being cut away below the 
eyes and along the nose; that is, 
the head should be free from flesh, 
and loose, thick skin, and should 
have a fine -boned framework. 

A fine head necessarily implies 
a flexible ear; bright, alert ej^es; 

open, thin-skinned nostrils, and an under jaw narrow 

where connected at the lower end. A jaw wide at the 

upper end gives ample room for the windpipe. 



Fia. 54. 
From a photograph. 
This shows bad 
breeding. 



- Fia. 55. 
From a photograph. Such ears 
would condemn any horse. 



AN APPROPRIATE NECK FOR A TROTTER 241 

Next, the horse should be viewed frou the side. 
The symmetry, general outlines, length of limbs, their 
setting on, their curvatures, length and appearance of 
the middle and the harmony or lack of harmony of 
each part with the other, may be discovered best from 



Fig. 56. Goldsmith Maid. 

this position. From the front and side views correct 
general impressions may be secured. These, supple- 
mented by a critical inspection of each part, should 
result in a good understanding of the make-up of the 
horse, his value and adaptation to the uses contem- 
plated. 

If the neck be thin vertically at the setting on of 
the head, the animal should be a pleasanter and safer 



242 



THE HOBSE 



driver than if the neck at the throat -latch be thick. 
The head should not be set on to the neck of the 
animal like that of a pi^, or the animal will be likel}^ 
to ''ho^ the bit," that is, take the bit in his teeth, 
thrust his nose straight out ahead, and be as unman - 





Fig. 57. From a photograph. Beanty of form counts for much. 
Who could admire such a neck and head ] 

ageable and as contrary as the animal whose neck is 
of the same stjde. If the horse is designed for fast 
work, his neck should be thin and rather light, with 
little or no crest. 

Beauty of form counts for so much that, in most 
cases, the ewe -neck should be avoided. For most pur- 



INSPECTING THE HORSE 



243 



poses, the neck should be a trifle long, but all-embrac- 
ing where it joins the bodj\ It should be set on the 
body at an angle of about thirty degrees above the 
horizontal; or, as the horsemen would say, on the 
corner, and not on the end of the body. The all- 
embracing neck, well set on, is not onl}^ beautiful but 
is indicative of strength, vigor and endurance. The 
above thought should be 
somewhat modified when the 
pony and the draft -horse 
are considered. The word 
pony usually implies a short, 
compact, small animal, and 
of necessity this build re- 
quires a rather plain, short 
neck. A good draft -horse 
may be said to be an en- 
larged, modified ponj-. 
Some of the better breeds of 
draft-horses show unmistakable signs of having had 
some admixture (probablj^ mostly through their dams) 
of the warm blood of the east, which blood has done 
much to give symmetry of form and courage to 
many varieties of horses. If the shoulders of the draft- 
horse be too oblique, as they sometimes are, the collar 
tends to rise under great pressure, and this may result 
in seriously obstructing free respiration. 

The hollow or protruding breast, the bend of the 
back, the length of bottom and top body lines, the 
length and slope of the hind quarters, the curby leg, 
the thorough -pin, the length and direction of the legs 




Fig. 58. Hassan. 
An all-embracing neck. 



244 THE HORSE 

between the fetlock joint and the hoof, can all be seen 
easily from the side when the horse is viewed by the 
trained eye. If in this general inspection the horse is 
not condemned for the purposes desired, a more critical 
inspection should next be made of the legs and feet. 
By bending down while standing in front of the horse, 
one may see clearly the contour of the inside of all 
the legs. Splints, spavins, wind -galls, ring- and side- 
bones, if of any considerable size, are immediately 
discovered. In this position comparison is easy, since, 
if one limb is enlarged at any point, the other serves 
to call attention to it. Onlj^ in rare cases is more than 
one limb affected in the same way and to the same 
extent. Not infrequently a blemish may be incipient 
and slight, and hence likely to escape detection; there- 
fore the limb should be examined by passing the hands 
downward over two legs at a time, pressing hard and 
keeping the hands opposite to each other. A blemish 
which could not be seen may be discovered by the sense 
of touch. A horse may pass all of these examina- 
tions successfully and yet be unsound; therefore, if 
any doubt remains, other tests should be made. Stand- 
ing in front of the horse, force him to move backward 
slowly and quietly. If he picks up his forefeet and 
steps backward without dragging the toe of the foot, 
he may be pronounced sound in the shoulders; but if 
the foot, instead of being lifted fairly clear of the 
floor, is moved back with a dragging motion, the horse 
is not normal. (For practice, observe a horse when 
backed that is known to be unsound.) 

If not fully satisfied with the inspection already 



CONFORMATION OF FEET 24t^ 

made, force the horse back by the bits and then turn 
him to the right or left quickly. This will throw extra 
Aveight on the rear legs, and the twisting motion given 
to them by the turning will cause the animal to flinch 
in case of an incipient spavin. 

The feet should be observed with the greatest care, 
keeping in mind the work the horse will be called on 
to perform. Feet which might not be seriously objec- 
tionable if the horse is to be used at slow work in the 
soft fields might be totally unsuited to fast work on 
pavements. 

Horses which have a strong infusion of warm blood 
frequently have naturally erect hoofs and rather high 
heels. If this feature of the hoof be accentuated by 
bad shoeing and previous fast road work, the foot may 
be in danger of becoming so contracted as to produce 
lameness, although the foot at the time of the examin- 
ation appears normal. On the other hand, feet may 
be so flat and open at the heel and the shell of the 
hoof so weak as to endanger the usefulness of the 
horse, and yet be technically sound. This class of 
feet is most often found on horses of the draft type. 
There is a happy medium between feet which are too 
narrow at the heel and too erect and those which are 
too open at the heel, too flat and deficient in bony 
structure. The open flat foot often becomes injured 
by the frog coming into too violent and intimate con- 
tact with hard earth and stones, while the narrow- 
heeled foot is more likely to be associated with 
navicular troubles. 



246 THE HOUSE 

THE horse's teeth 

•So far nothing has been said about determining 
the age of horses. A discussion of this subject has 
been purposely deferred until the limbs, and particu- 
larly the feet, have been examined. If these indicate 
that, in general, the bony structure is softish and of 
open texture, then it may be concluded that the teeth 
are of the same general character. The teeth of 
horses which have bones of somewhat open structure 
are likely to indicate that they are slightly older than 
they really are; while the teeth of horses whose bones, 
as indicated by legs and hoofs, are of fine and close 
texture may indicate them to be younger than they 
really are. All this applies to horses which have 
passed their eighth year, there being certain charac- 
teristics and changes in the teeth up to about the 
eighth year by which the age within a few months 
may be accurately determined. After the horse has 
passed the eighth year, it is sometimes difficult, to 
determine his true age by the teeth. Experts may 
come williin a year or two of it until the horse 
becomes quite aged, when he may be said to be six- 
teen past o^ eighteen past, and the like; but how 
much past may not certainly be known from the 
appearance of his teeth. The texture of the bone, 
the breeding, the kind of food the horse has eaten, 
and other conditions, have more or less influence on 
the teeth; therefore in the old horse the teeth serve 
to indicate age only in a general way. 

The horse when full-grown has forty teeth — 



DETERMINING THE AGE OF HOUSES 



247 



incisors f, canines (incipient in the females), f, 
molars f, f=|-o=40. As the incisor teeth only are 
usually inspected when the age of the horse is to be de- 
termined, they alone will be discussed here. The colt 
is provided, before the end of the first year, with 
twelve temporary incisor or milk-teeth. The differ- 
ence in size of the jaw-bone of the foal and the 
horse makes a change from milk to permanent teeth 
necessary. 

Usuall}^ from one to two week's after the foal is 
born, two center nippers in each jaw are plainly visi- 
ble and appear as shown in Fig. 59. It will be noticed 
that these teeth are long from right to left and have 
well-defined cups, or "maiks," and that thej' show little 
or no wear. These char- 
acteristics should be noted 
carefully, for all tempo- 
rary and permanent teeth 
when new have pro - 
nounced distinguishing 
marks. If the age of the 
colt and horse is to be 
determined with any de- 
gree of accuracy, not only 
the number but the shape, 
character and various changes, as the teeth progress in 
age, should be most carefully noted. 

At from four to six weeks of age, by reason of use 
the first pairs of nippers will have been worn down 
level, that is, the inside of the teeth will show level 
with the outside. The outside edges of new teeth arc 




Fig. 59. 
From one to two weeks old. 



248 



THE EOBSE 



always more forward than the inside edges. It should 
also be noted that these new teeth are fully twice as 
long laterally as they are thick. In Fig. 60 are shown 
the lower nippers when the colt is from four to six 
weeks of age. The central pair of nippers shows 
wear and the lateral pair is through, but the inside 
and the posterior corners are not fully up and show 
clearly that they have not been in wear. The per- 
manent teeth show the 
same characteristics 
when new; that is, the 
inside and the posterior 
corners do not come up 
nor come in wear as 
soon as do the outside 
and the anterior cor- 
ners. Note that the 
cups, or marks, in the 
central pair are not 
quite so deep nor so 
long as they were when 
coming into wear, as shown in Fig. 59. 

When the colt reaches eight to ten months of age, 
the teeth will appear as shown in Fig. 61. The 
corner nippers are up but not fully in wear on the 
inside and the posterior corners. The posterior cor- 
ners of the last pair of nippers, both in the colt and 
horse, come up and get in wear more slowly than do 
the posterior corners of lateral nippers. Note, too, 
the changes which have taken place in the cups and in 
the shape of both the central and the lateral nippers. 




TEMPORARY TEETH DISCUSSED 



249 



It would be well, before proceeding further, to turn 
to Figs. 74 and 78 and notice how the wear from year 
to year results in a change of the form of the tooth 
and, in time, in ob- 
literating the cups, 
or marks. 

Note also the dif- 
ference in the shape 
of the root of the 
permanent tooth. 
Fig. 74, and the 
temporary tooth, 
Fig. 62. The root of 
the latter is much 
smaller and shorter 
than the former. It 
also has a distinct 
neck, which, however, is not easily discovered at first, 
as the gums partially cover the neck. As the milk- 
tooth approaches three years of age, its 
roots are absorbed rapidly and the neck is 
easily discovered. By the time the perma- 
nent tooth is ready to appear, the root of 
the temporary tooth is nearly absorbed and 
little remains besides that portion which is 
above the neck. The temporary teeth not 
only have a distinct neck but are smaller, 
smoother and lighter colored than the 
permanent teeth. These differences may 
Fig. 62. assist the beginner in distinguishing the 

milk tooth. two kinds of teeth and in determining age. 





250 



THE HOESE 



At the full age of one year, the marks in the 
central nippers will be much shorter and fainter than 
they were at first. The lateral nippers will show 
wear, the marks will be longer and more pronounced 
than in the central nippers, but they will be shorter 
and less indented than in the younger corner teeth. 
All of the nippers will be up and the corner ones 
will be worn level; that is, their posterior corners 
will be fully up but not worn quite as much as shown 
in Fig. 63. It requires some care to determine accu- 
rately the age of the colt when it has passed its first 
3^ear and up to the time the central nippers are 

replaced by per- 
manent ones. It 
may be said , 
however, that 
the teeth show 
wear and have 
something of the 
appearance of a 
s i X - y e a r - o 1 d 
mouth in minia- 
ture; but, with 
careful iuspec- 
t i o n , m a n 3' 
minor differ- 
ences can be observed. The teeth are shorter, that 
is, show less above the gums, are smaller than those 
of the six-j^ear-old animal and have a distinct neck. 
They are lighter colored than are those of the horse 
of six years of age. If the teeth of the two -year -old 




TWO PERMANENT TEETE 



251 



colt (Fig. 63) be compared with those of the one 
nearly a year old (Fig. 61), it is seen that the cups, 
"marks," of the central nippers of the two-year-old 
have nearly or quite disappeared, although a little 
discoloration usually remains in the center of the 
teeth. There is still a slight mark in the laterals, 
and the marks in the corner nippers are fairly deep. 




Fig. 64. Lower nippers at 
turee years of atje. 



It may be said that they are much deeper in the corner 
teeth when the colt is but a little past two years than 
they are when the colt approaches three years of age 

When the colt reaches the age of about two years, 
nine months, the roots of the central nippers are 
usually nearly absorbed and the permanent central 
nippers, if not already in evidence, will soon make 
their appearance. 

When the colt is shedding teeth its mouth should 



252 



THU HOUSE 



be watched and, if the milk-teeth have not disappeared 
when the permanent ones have pushed through, they 
should be removed, as they only serve to irritate the 
gums and to prevent the animal from consuming the 





Fig. 65. Lower nippers at four" 
years of age. 



usual amount of feed. A little extra feed and care 
should be given the colt while it is substituting per- 
manent for temporary nippers. 

At about two years and nine months to two years 
and eleven months the center permanent nippers will 
appear, and at full three years of age the outer 
portion of the teeth and sometimes the inner also 
will be up and in wear. (Fig. 64.) These teeth are 
larger every way than were those which were sup- 
planted. The lateral temporary nippers have changed 



LATERAL NIPPERS JUST THROUGH 253 

shape and have lost all or nearly all their cups. The 
slight black indentations can hardl}' be called cups. 
The cups in the corner teeth are greatly reduced. If 
the colt be a male, small tusks are likely to be present 
or in process of coming through the skin of the jaw. 

At about three years, nine months, the permanent 
lateral nippers appear. At four years of age they are 
fully up and in wear on the outside and sometimes 
on the inside. (Fig. 65.) The central nippers 
show a year's wear, and the cups are not so deep as 
they were when the colt was three years of age. The 
cups, or marks, have nearly or quite disappeared from 
the corner (milk) teeth, often nothing but a slight 
dark indentation being left. The tusks have enlarged, 
but are still sharp at their points and flattish on the 
inside. A side view of a four -j-ear- old mouth is 
shown in Fig. 66. The crowns of the two temporary, 
or milk-teeth, one upper and one 
lower, come together closely over 
their entire surface, while the 
two permanent teeth do not yet 
meet at their posterior corners. 

When the colt reaches the age 
of four years and nine months, 
the corner nippers make their ap- 
pearance. When he reaches the 
full age of five years, the outer fig. 66. side view of the teeth 
anterior portions of these teeth ^^ ^ four-year-o 
meet. (See side view of a five-year-old mouth, Fig. 68.) 
About one year of wear must take place before the corner 
teeth are worn level throughout their entire surfaces, — 




254 



THE HOBSE 



the corner teeth when worn off level are one of the dis- 
tinguishing marks of a six-year-old horse. At five years 
the central nippers have had two years' wear, and one 
more will virtually destroy the cups. They are also 
changing slightly in shape; they have become rounder on 
the inside and slightly shorter in their longest dimen- 




sions. The lateral nippers have also changed. They have 
been in use nearly one year. In about two years more 
the cups will have nearly disappeared. The corner teeth 
are longish from front to rear, and do not show change 
of form or indications of rounding up on the inside as 
do the older central nippers. The cups are deep and 
fresh, the corners are deficient, and in every way they 
show unmistakably that they are young teeth which 



COBNER PERMANENT TEETH APPEAR 



255 




Fig. G8. Side view of the teetli of a 
five-year-old horse. 



have been subjected to little wear. The tusks have 
enlarged, but are not yet blunt, and prominently rounded 
on the inside, as they will be when the horse approaches 
his "teens." The per- 
manent teeth are 
roughish, that is, have 
slight corrugations, 
while the temporary 
teeth are smooth on 
the outer surfaces. 

The colt at five 
has a "full" mouth, 
and, with it, his name 
is changed to that of 
"horse." The female 
is no longer called a tiUey, but a mare, and the "entire" 
horse a stallion. 

Sometimes horses have shelly teeth, in which case 
the inside of the corner teeth may not be up and in 
wear, in fact may never come up, and always have 
the appearance of a corner tooth that is not fully up. 
At rare intervals horses have what is known as "hawk- 
bill" mouths, that is, the upper incisors extend over 
the under ones; in which case it is difficult to determine 
the age after the horse has reached his sixth year. 
However, in horses, malformed teeth are rare. 

Fig. 69 shows the teeth of the lower jaw when the 
horse reaches his sixth year. The marks, or cups, have 
disappeared, or nearly so, from the front nippers, have 
become shallower and smaller in the laterals, and the 
corner teeth are up on the inside and posterior corners.. 



256 



THE HORSE 




No notches will yet be found in the upper corner 
incisors. The corner teeth are somewhat smaller than 
the laterals or the front teeth. 

At six years of age, the wearing surfaces of these 

corner teeth come to- 
gether throughout their 
entire length. The cen- 
tral teeth have made 
marked changes in 
shape, — they are becom- 
ing quite roundish on 
the inside, and the lat- 
erals are also somewhat 

Fig. 70. Side view of the teeth of a -,• i* i i • i i. t, 

six-year-old horse. modified, W h 1 1 C the 




SHAPE OF TEETH CHANGED 



257 



corner teeth are but slightly changed in general con- 
tour. During the year from five to six, the tusks have 
become slightly larger, rounder and blunter. If the 
horse's lips be parted, and the mouth viewed from the 
front, the teeth, especially the central ones, will appear 




darker colored and longer than they did a year or two 
years previous, due to shrinking or receding of the 
gums. Compare Figs. 64, 65, 67. 

When the horse reaches seven years of age, the cups 
have not only disappeared from the central nippers, 
although small, darkish spots may be seen, but they 
have nearly or quite disappeared from the laterals as 
well. The corner teeth still retain the cups, though 

Q 



258 



TEE HORSE 



they are shallow, which is evidence that the teeth have 
been in wear two j^ears, and that in another year the 
cups will have nearly or quite disappeared. (Fig. 71.) 
It will be noticed that, from the time when the teeth 
in the lower jaw are well up and in wear to the time 
the cups have virtually disappeared in the lower jaw, 
is three years. It is well to keep this in mind. The 
teeth in the upper jaw retain their cups for a longer 
period. 

A side view of a seven-year-old mouth shows one 
marked characteristic. (Fig. 72.) The lower corner 

teeth seldom extend 
as far backward as the 
upper ones do. Only 
in very rare cases do 
all of the four corner 
teeth meet at the 
corners accurately; in 
which case the pos- 
terior corners of the 
upper incisors are not 
worn down level with 
the rest of the teeth. 
The result is, the face of the tooth in wear recedes, 
while that part of the tooth not in wear projects down- 
ward, forming more or less of a "notch." Sometimes 
no distinct notch is apparent. However, by close inspec- 
tion, it can be seen that the face of the upper corner 
tooth, where it meets the lower one, is not straight, 
as it was when the horse was six years of age, but 
slightly concave. If the teeth should chance to meet 




Fig. 72. Side view of the nippers of a 
seven-year-old horse. 



MABKS ALL GONE 



259 



at the corners more accurately than shown in Fig. 72, 
then no notch will be formed; nevertheless the upper 
corner tooth will be slightly concave, though not so 
marked as shown in the above figure. However, it is 
seldom that this distinguishing notch is not forming or 




formed on one or the other of the upper corner teeth 
at the age of seven years. 

At eight years of age, the marks or cups have 
disappeared from the teeth of the lower jaw. However, 
slight dark -colored indentations are still present in the 
corner teeth, but they are not pronounced enough to 
be called cups. (Fig. 73.) The shape of the teeth has 



260 



TEE HORSE 



radically changed. Turn to Fig. 74, and note the cross- 
section of a front incisor tooth when it has been in 
wear five years, — that is, when the horse is eight years 
old, as compared with the teeth of a five-year-old 
horse. At eight years of age there are indications that 
the bones of the jaw and the teeth have already ceased 
to enlarge In soine cases they show a slight shrinkage 

and the contour of the lower 
jaw has become less rounded. 
Compare Fig. 73 with Fig. 
05. Finding that the cups 
have nearly or quite dis- 
appeared from the lower jaw, 
we proceed to examine the 
upper nippers. It is not 
easy to get a clear view of 
the upper nipper teeth of a 
restless animal. If the horse 
is eight years old the cups 
will still be present in the 
upper center nippers, but 
they will not be deep. If the 
teeth be viewed from the 
side, Fig. 75, they will appear somewhat long, and will 
meet at a sharper angle than they did when the horse 
was but four years old. As the years go by, the angle 
of the teeth increases. At four years of age, the upper 
and lower teeth meet nearly vertically with each other, 
at twenty at an angle of nearly forty -five degrees. 
The tusks are becoming constantly larger, rounder and 
blunter as the years advance. Compare Fig. 75 with 



4 years 



9 years 



14 years 



20 years 




Pig. 74. Cross sectiou of an incisor 
tooth, showing how the shape 
changes with advancing years. 



NOTCH PRESENT, TUSKS LARGE 



261 



Fig. 66, and the notches in the corner teeth have be- 
come pronounced. 

At nine years of age, the cups will have disap- 
peared from the upper center incisors, and will be 
shallow in the laterals but fairly deep in the corner 
teeth. The cups do not disappear at such regular 
intervals in the upper teeth as they do in the lower 
ones. Therefore, it is not always possible to tell the 
age of a horse within a year or two, after he has 
passed his eighth year. However, the character, sliape 
and angle of meet- 
ing of the incisor 
teeth may all be 
used to assist the 
judgment in de- 
termining age. As 
has been formerly 
stated, horses hav- 
ing dense, hard 
bones and hoofs 
are likely to be 
rated younger 
than they are, 
after eight years of age, when judged by the teeth 
alone; while horses of softer bony structure are likely 
to be judged older than they are. 

At ten years, the cups have disappeared from the 
upper lateral teeth, the notches in the corner upper 
incisors have become enlarged, and all the signs of 
advancing age, as described above, are becoming 
marked. 




Fig. 75. The incisor teeth of au eight -year- old horso 



262 THE HOUSE 

Usually, when the horse reaches his eleventh year, 
all the cups have disappeared; though it is not 
uncommon to find shallow cups in the upper corner 
teeth of smallish dense -boned horses up to thirteen or 
even fourteen years of age. However, the shape and 
the angle of the incisors prevent a close judge from 
being much deceived. After the horse has passed his 
twelfth year, the matter of two or three years counts 
for but little; since all horses have then passed their 
prime, and, while they may, for certain purposes, be 
as efficient as they were when j'oung, the time is fast 
approaching when the capital invested in the horse 
will be lost. The value of a horse is modified by the 
number of years which is likely to elapse before his 
value reaches the zero point. For instance, a ten- 
year-old horse may be, and usually is, able to per- 
form more service than a five -j'ear- old; but the five- 
year -old may be able to perform twelve years of 
efficient service, while, if a horse be ten years old, 
there would be but seven years of service before the 
capital stock invested would be sunk. Then, too, 
old horses are likely to be more sluggish than j-oung 
ones. All things considered, it is seldom wise to pur- 
chase an old horse unless the price is low; in which 
case it matters little whether the horse is fourteen, 
fifteen or sixteen years of age. One's judgment of 
the value of a horse at these ages should be founded 
on general appearances and on activity shown, rather 
than on age, which cannot be accurately determined 
by an examination of the teeth. One may distinguish 
between a horse moderately old and one that is very 



TEETH NEAKLT TBIANGULAE 



263 



old; but after the horse reaches his twelfth year the 
teeth do not aceuratel}^ indicate the age. 

Figs. 76 and 77 graphically illustrate the appear- 
ance of the teeth of an old horse. The incisor teeth 
have become nearly triangular and they show long 




Fig. 76. The lower incisor teeth of an old horse. 
Note the shape and length of them. 

wear The tusks are large, blunt and round; the 
notches in the corner teeth, long and deep; the front 
ends of the teeth have been broken off, and they 
meet at an acute angle. They may have grown out so 
long as to prevent the double teeth from meeting; in 
which case the horse will spit out his food after he 
has extracted some of its juices by imperfect mastica- 



264 



THJ^ EOESE 



tion. If the incisor teeth be rasped off on their 
posterior edges, the grinders will then meet and life 
will be somewhat prolonged. It is humane either to 
do this or to destroy the animal, rather than to let it 
die by slow starvation. 

Having given somewhat lengthy and detailed 
instructions for determining the age of horses by an 
inspection of their teeth, it will assist materially in 

understanding the 
instructions if the 
teeth be studied in 
a different way. 
Fig. 78 shows an 
entire permanent 
incisor tooth. It 
will be observed in 
the left-hand cut, 
that the face of the 
tooth has not yet 
been in wear and 
that the inside of it 
is not fully up. The cup is about three -eighths of an 
inch deep. It is of such a curvature that when the 
opposite tooth meets it they will come together much 
as the jaws of an ordinary pair of pincers do, and not 
like the jaws of a pair of tongs. 

In the second cut from the left is shown the same 
tooth, the cross line indicating how much of the tooth 
has been worn away by one year's wear. Nearly or 
quite one -third and the broadest part of the cup is 
gone. In the third cut from the left, the cross line 




Fig. 77. A side view from life of the nippers of 
an old. timer. 



YEARLY WEAR OF TEETE 



265 



shows how much of the tooth will be worn away when it 
has been in wear two years. The fourth cut from the 
left shows a front incisor which came up at three years 
of age and has been in wear three years. The cup has 
nearly or quite disappeared, which occurs at six years 
of age. When the horse reaches nine years of age, the 
cut shows that about three -eighths of an inch of the 



At 3 years. 4 years. 5 years. 6 years 



years. 20 years. 




Fig. 78. Shows tlie wear of an incisor tooth and why the cups, or marks, dis- 
appear as age advances. The lower nippers wear away about one-eighth of 
an inch each year. The upper incisors wear away more slowly. 

tooth has been worn away below the cup. At twenty 
years, the tooth shows much wear. The direction of 
wear, as shown by the cross line, has changed. Note 
the angle and how different it is from the visible angle 
of the teeth of a young horse. 

Turn back to Fig. 74, as it will assist the eye and 
the judgment in distinguishing between a tooth which 
has just come in wear and one that has been in wear 



266 THU HORSE 

four, eight, fourteen and twenty years, respectively, as 
shown by the dotted lines. It also shows clearly the 
marked changes which occur in the shape of the teeth 
when viewed in cross section. At from eleven to thirteen 
years, as has been stated, all the cups disappear from 
the upper incisors, after which there is difficulty in 
accurately determining the age. However, if the shape 
of the teeth is observed critically (Fig. 74) , it will not be 
at all difficult for a novice to distinguish between a 
horse just past his prime, an old horse and a very old 
horse. 



Note — Throughout this chapter the terms "temporary teeth" 
and "milk teeth," also the words "incisors" and "nipper 5" have 
been used synonomously. This is in recognition of the fact that 
these terms are so used by many good horsemen. 



CHAPTER XVI 

BREEDING HORSES 

The breeders of horses may be divided roughly into 
two classes — the professional and wealthy amateur, 
and the commoner. The former usually has means 
sufficient to secure as foundation stock expensive and 
superior animals. He may expect profits, but does not 
always realize them. The business is not infrequently 
carried on for the enjoyment which is secured from 
rearing, handling and driving fine horses. While the 
undertaking may yield no profit to the proprietor, it 
seldom fails to be of great value to the horse interests. 
The commoner learns much from observing the suc- 
cesses and failures of the professional and the amateur 
in their expensive efforts to make advancement. Then, 
too, the commoner may reap great benefit from having 
near at hand tested stallions, the services of which 
may usually be secured at reasonable terms. Although 
the commoner has to follow a long way behind the 
professional, he should not, by reason of prejudice, 
fail to make use of the many valuable facts secured by 
the liberal expenditures of the professional. It would 
be gratifying if the wealthy breeders would take more 
interest in improving the horses in the hands of the 
farmers and less in conspicuous display. 

However, it is the commoner we are seeking to 

(267) . . 



268 THE HOUSE 

benefit; since the wealthy breeder usually has the 
lesson of breeding fairly well learned, and, in case he 
has not, is amply able to employ experienced and 
trained foremen. The wealthy breeder often goes so 
fast and so far that the commoner loses contact and 
hesitates to follow. 

The farmer carrying on mixed husbandry has con- 
stant use for horses during a part of the year. For 
about six months they are often overwcrked; during 
the balance of the year the cost of maintenance 
exceeds the value of their services. To minimize this 
expense, the grain ration is much reduced or entirely 
dispensed with. The coarse and innutritions roughage, 
which cannot be readily disposed of in the market, is 
used to furnish a ration which sometimes falls short 
of the maintenance standard. In the spring, the 
horses are soft and inefficient, and when put to severe 
work are often permanently injured. Usually the ani- 
mals are too light for the service required; in rare 
cases, too heavy. Many are "weedy" and weak, 
when the highest endurance should be possessed to 
carrj^ the farm -horse through the rush of spring seed- 
ing and harvest. In the following chapter something 
is said as to adapting the breed to the work to be 
performed and as to the details of raising winter 
colts. Here, it is proposed to speak to that large 
number of farmers who pay little or no attention to 
breeding horses and give but scant care to the 
horses already possessed. When one is worn out 
another is purchased, or the attempt is made to farm 
with too few work -animals. All this results in slovenly 



BOVS WITHOUT COLTS UNHAPPF 269 

and often unprofitable husbandr3^ The stocks and bonds 
of a railway that owns too few, inefficient and poorly 
cared -for locomotives never sell at par or earn satis- 
factory dividends. 

It will not require a large fund of knowledge or 
long experience to fit even a man who has little taste 
for horses to intelligently select a good brood-mare, 
and the experience of his neighbors will indicate the 
stallion to be used which will most likely beget off- 
spring suited to the soil and the work to be per- 
formed. Once the work of breeding is entered upon, 
even the novice will soon learn enough of the funda- 
mental principles of breeding to produce animals which 
are likely to be far superior to those purchased at 
random under the stress of necessity and paid for by 
a promise to be fulfilled in the future. 

Farmers' boys without colts are as unhappy as 
married people without children. Our experience leads 
to the conclusion that, after keeping an account of 
the value of the food consumed by colts, there is a 
profit of from thirty to fifty per cent in raising colts 
up to three years of age, provided they are worth one 
hundred dollars at that time, and allowing that the 
value of the manure produced equals the trouble of 
caring for them.^ In other words, in the middle and 
eastern states, horse-raising at present is likely to 
produce double the profit that can be realized in most 
other branches of mixed agriculture; and this, too, 
by the man who is unskilled, and whose chief energies 

1 See "Fertility of the Land," for quantity and value of manure 
produced by horses. 



270 THE HORSE 

may be devoted to the production of grain or hay or 
dairy products. 

To secure one hundred dollars, more than 10,000 
pounds of milk must ordinarily be produced. Perhaps 
I am spending too much time in trying to energize 
those who stand lowest in the art of horse-breeding, 
and who find it easier to give promissory notes for 
an unacclimated horse of comparatively little value 
for a year, and which may prove to be vicious or 
unsound, rather than to "bother with a colt." But 
I have a great interest in, and really affection 
for this man, who had no opportunity in youth to 
acquire even a smattering of the principles which 
underlie his profession, — who has worked so hard 
and long, as boy and man, that he has become un- 
responsive, soured and often egotistical. Under the 
circumstances, it is difficult for him to receive and 
adopt new methods which require additional knowl- 
edge and foresight. He is often so cramped in means 
that he hesitates to undertake anything which does 
not give promise of quick returns, although the 
undertaking may offer satisfactory rewards. These 
are the men who set no orchards, drain no lands, 
repair no buildings. They are to be pitied, not 
blamed. It has seemed to me that this class of farm- 
ers should find a friend and an adviser somewhere. 
Such cases cannot be dismissed by simply saying, 
"Why don't you do better?" Why not raise cows 
that will bring fifty dollars each, instead of twenty- 
five dollars'? Why not raise horses at forty dollars 
profit each, instead of raising wheat and oats at a 



WOBK FOB HOUSES AND BOYS 271 

positive loss ? Or why not raise hothouse lambs and 
get ten dollars per head for them at eight weeks of 
age ? But how can they do better until they have 
more knowledge and skill? 

I have suggested that raising one or more colts 
yearly would be practicable; since horses must be 
maintained to do the work of the farm, and since 
men and teams, in many cases, spend four to five 
months of the year in comparative idleness. Often a 
fairly good brood-mare is already at hand; and what 
better use can she be put to during the winter than 
nursing a colt, and what better and pleasanter work 
for the boys than caring for and "breaking" colts? 

One illustration of the results which followed 
acceptance of advice similar to the above may be 
given. A young farmer living from "hand-to-mouth" 
secured a mare which had many of the characteristics 
of motherhood. She was bred four successive years to 
a smallish, symmetrical, dark -colored Percheron stal- 
lion. The result was four colts. Being large, sym- 
metrical and strong, they were used at light work as 
soon as they had passed the age of two years. One 
pair was sold when the colts were nearly four and 
five years of age for three hundred dollars cash at the 
farm. The next day after the sale the two younger 
colts were harnessed, and in a week they were doing 
the work of the pair sold. Here, with no great effort 
or expense, nearly six hundred dollars' worth of horses 
had been produced in five years, and the net profits 
realized were more than the net profits on all other 
products of the little farm for that period. This man 



272 THE HORSE 

dropped his hoe and leaped into the saddle, and ever 
after was a more intelligent and a broader man. 

But the profits are by no means the chief consider- 
ation in such an enterprise. There are boj's on the 
farm, or should be, who have paramount claims. John 
will not remain contented between the plow handles 
many years if he has no colt upon which to trj- his 
courage and skill. Unless some means are provided for 
recreation and an outlet for his restless energy, and 
opportunity for gratifying his desire to exhibit his 
courage and skill, do not be surprised if some day you 
find the plow standing idle in the furrow and the boy 
standing on the front platform of an electric car, 
uniformed and numbered. These unknown and unap- 
preciated farm lads, with their nascent pride and 
repressed nervous energy, are humiliated, shamed, 
when seen in public with that rough, old, overworked 
farm -horse hitched to the carriage. Nearly every farm 
boy now has a carriage — and a best girl. Deprive 
him of a good young horse, — one which has spring 
and mettle, one which it takes both hands to manage, 
— and he will take to the bicycle and the town and 
leave the farm, carriage and the girl behind, — and 
leaving the girl behind is the worst of all. When 
his hands have become soft and white in town, he 
maybe ashamed of the virtuous, natural, nut-brown 
girl in the farm home. If he could remain on the 
farm a little longer, his better and riper judgment 
would enable him to discriminate between solid and 
enduring, and showy characteristics which fade when 
tested under the strenuous conditions which sooner or 



OBJECTIVE POINT BOYS AND GIBLS 273 

later always come, both in eitj' and country life. The 
strength, courage and patience which come from 
rural life will then be worth more than the lily-white 
complexion. 

The wood, with its multitude of wild animals to 
hunt and trap, is no more; the evening social function 
at schoolhouse and farmhouse has passed into dim 
remembrance; even the inspiring winter revivals in 
the country church have gone out of fashion. If he 
has no colt to drive, there seems no place nor time 
left for the farmer's boy to secure relaxation and 
recreation but to find it by scouring the country on 
the Sabbath days by means of back-breaking, bowel- 
curling bicycles. The boy does secure a change by his 
Sunday wanderings; but he is likely to secure much 
else in country inns, fruit plantations, and associa- 
tion, in too manj^ instances, with those whose charac- 
ters are the reverse of the girl's he has left at home. 

It will be seen by the most casual reader that my 
objective point is the boys and girls on the farm, 
w^iile the horse is treated as a means to an end. Only 
yesterday I saw this boy and girl, as I stopped at their 
home to get a drink of milk. Large -headed, muscular, 
clear of eye, alert and hanging on every word from 
the outside world. Already a little ashamed of their 
work -day clothes, and alread5% for want of oppor- 
tunity' and experience, imbibing something of the 
false notion that fine clothes and soft hands are sure 
indexes of respectability, virtue and learning. The 
three things most prized by the children in this far- 
away, semi -mountain home, were the colts, the flowers 

R 



274 TEJi] HORSE 

and the chickens. I stopped long enough to look them 
all over, and received instruction. 

The old custom of presenting each son with a colt 
or young horse on arriving at his majority was most 
excellent, and might well be revived. If father will 
not present you with a colt, raise one for yourself; 
if he confiscates it, raise two more, but raise good 
ones. A poor horse may be made to increase your 
efficiency in production five-fold, but a good one not 
only gives pleasure but may be made to increase your 
productive power more than ten-fiold. Then, too, a 
good horse may be one of the truest, most helpful and 
appreciative friends you will have in your boyhood. 
No boy can be said to be ignorant who has learned 
how to breed, rear, feed and drive a good horse. 

My young lads and lasses, I have laid aside for a 
time the discussion of scientific and practical horse- 
breeding for the pleasure of having a familiar chat 
with you; and if you believe the half of what I have 
said as to the beneficial influences, pleasures and 
profits which may be derived from a love for and the 
breeding of the horse, you will read the next chapter, 
which gives directions somewhat in detail, as well as 
some of the principles which should be observed, if 
the breeding and rearing of horses is to be added to 
the general farm operations already established. 



CHAPTER XVII 

EDUCATION AND CABE OF ROADSTERS AND 
OTHER LIGHT HORSES 

Nearly all the ailments of horses are due not so 
much to bad breeding as to faulty training, ignorant, 
brutal driving, overwork, carelessness in feeding and 
watering, and thoughtlessness and ignorance with 
regard to the kind and amount of work which should 
be demanded of a horse under given circumstances. 
This being the case, the subject of driving, feeding 
and management is set forth in this and the follow- 
ing chapter with painstaking minuteness. 

EDUCATION 

The colt, it will be remembered, was taught, while 
yet with its dam, to obey simple commands and to 
acquire confidence in its master and in the myriad of 
frightful objects of the new world in which it first 
found itself a timid, ignorant stranger. It has had a 
happy, unrestrained life so far, and has learned much 
of men and things during its three years of growing, 
joyous, bounding life. Its freedom has given it power 
and courage, — both of which we shall discover when 
an attempt is made to get dominion over it. Without 
this bounding energj^ and courage, it would be a dis- 
appointment — simply an ass. 

(275) 



276 THl^] HORSE 

The modern colt is easily educated, for, through 
many generations of domestication, it has inherited 
the capacit}" to acquire an education readily. On the 
plains, it was once necessary to "break" and tame 
colts as we do lions, by harsh methods, and in a 
few cases it is still so. 

With rare exceptions, the colt on the farm is made 
usable if, for a few hours each day for a week, he is 
subjected to the restraints of a bitting harness in the 
open paddock. (Fig. 79.) The cl^eck- and side-rein 
should be left slack at first. Graduall}', from day to 
day, the reins maj^ be shortened; provided, however, 
they are never made so short as to place the head in 
an uncomfortable position or draw the bit so tightly 
into the corners of his mouth as to make them sore. 
After the bitting, the colt may wear the harness and 
be driven with lines in the open field, without being 
attached to a vehicle. The next step is to drive him 
for a few hours each day, by the side of a good -sized, 
staid, mature horse attached to a farm -wagon, which 
should be furnished with a brake, first in the open 
field, until he learns what is wanted of him. The colt 
is now ready for light work. The education should be 
continuous, not spasmodic, and the after work should 
be continuous but light. The way not to train a colt 
is to give him one lesson a week or a month, which 
he forgets before he receives his second lesson, and 
then the first lesson has to be relearned. As the colt 
is put to light work, the grain ration should be 
increased, governed, however, by the exhaustiveness of 
the service. If the work is light and the grain ration 



SPIRIT NOT TO BE BROKEN 



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Fig. 79. Receiving their first lesson. 

liberal, the colt is likel}^ to attempt to play in the 
harness, get into trouble and become frightened. It is, 
therefore, not wise to keep the colt in too high spirits 
until he acquires staid horse -sense. On the other 
hand, his spirit should not be broken, or he may be a 

r 

dullard all the rest of his life. 

All of this preliminary' education is not always 



278 



THE HOBSU 




Fig. 80. Ready for the second lesson. 



necessary. Colts of the draft -breeds are not so sensi- 
tive as are those of the warm-blooded breeds. Since 
the colt receives his education largely through the 
sense of touch, and since this sense varies widely in 
individuals and breeds, no hard-and-fast rule can be 
given for the training of colts. Only occasionally is 
it difficult to get the colt to receive his lessons kindly. 



WBOJSG SIDE, SEE FIG. 



279 



When these exceptional cases are met with, I know 
of no better way to get dominion over him than to 
throw the colt, "Rarry him." The bitting rig serves 
well for this purpose. Horse ready, Fig. 80. The 
right fore foot is strapped up, and a strap is also 




Fig. 81. The work half done. 

attached to the left fore foot below the fetlock. 
Standing on the left side, the colt's neck is turned 
sharply to the right side and he is made to take a 
step with his free foot. As he raises it, the operator 
brings it sharply up to the body. This results in 
bringing the colt to his knees. Fig. 81. If the neck 
is kept well bent, as it should be, the colt can make 
but feeble efforts to rise, although he may do some 



280 



THE HOUSE 



plunging. The operator remains close to the colt's 
side, with one elbow over his back. This is a most 
humiliating and uncomfortable position for the colt. 
He soon yields and lies down, usually on the left side. 
This brings his feet away from the operator. If the 




Fig. 82. Brains versus bnite force. 

front legs are kept up to the body and the neck 
slightly bent to the right, the animal cannot rise. 
(Fig. 82.) Now almost anything, such as opening and 
closing an umbrella, jingling bells, etc., may be done. 
The colt quickly learns that these do not harm him. 
If he be laid down several times and afterwards be 
driven with lines, with one leg tied up and the other 
ready to be taken up at the slightest indication of 



'^CONDITION'' GOVERNED BY USE 281 

self-assertion, much will have been accomplished to 
convince a vicious colt that the intellect of man is 
superior to the intellect of a colt, even though asso- 
ciated with powerful muscles. 

FEEDING 

Driving- horses, especially those used at fast work, 
should be fed with great care. They should have 
relatively a greater proportion of concentrates and a 
less proportion of roughage than those used for heavy, 
slow work. Horses designed for fast work should not 
have their bowels distended with coarse foods. Some 
roughage is always necessary to float and divide the 
concentrates in the stomach, otherwise the grain and 
meal become somewhat compacted, and then are not 
easily attacked by the digestive juices. There is always 
some danger of feeding so liberally as to produce over- 
fatness. Fat horses, to the untrained eye, appear more 
beautiful than lean ones, and hence the danger of 
sacrificing highest usefulness for beauty. Any un- 
necessary weight on the legs reduces to some extent 
their efficiency, and also tends to make the horse slug- 
gish. The family horse maybe kept much plumper than 
the roadster, for he is not driven so fast and far, and, 
by reason of the extra flesh, in time he becomes safer 
and less nervous. If the food of the horse thin in 
flesh be increased, his spirit is likely to increase for a 
time, and a horse considered safe when thin may 
become so energetic and friskj^ when putting on flesh 
as to injure his reliability as a family horse. Having 



282 THE HORSE 

once arrived at the maximum of flesh, he will soon 
tend to become as trusty as at first. Having been fat 
for some time, the tendency is for him to grow 
sluggish. 

FOODS 

Roughage and Concentrates. — Timothy and wild 
prairie hays form excellent roughage for feeding road- 
sters. While the roadster may be fed hay from grasses 
mixed with clover, and even bright clover alone with- 
out injury if the quantity is sharply restricted, yet 
there is always some danger of injuring the wind of 
the horse by so doing. Timothy and prairie hays are 
less palatable, and more carbonaceous than hays mixed 
with clover, which are more relished; and hence the 
tendency is for the horse to eat too much of the latter 
unless the feeder limits the ration. Mixed and clover 
hays are admirably adapted for feeding colts and other 
young stock. Such hay has a nutritive ratio of about 
1:5.8 (one to five and eight- tenths. See Appendix 
III), while timothy hay has a ratio of about 1:16. 
The chief reasons for not feeding clover hay to driving 
horses are two: It is always more or less dusty, and 
it is too proteinaceous, and hence tends to loosen the 
bowels when the animal is put at hard, fast work. 
However, if clover hay be mixed with bright straw, 
and the mass be dampened, a satisfactory roughage 
ration will be secured for all but fast drivers. 

Oats and corn are the two standard concentrates. 
The former is best adapted to driving -horses, while 
the latter mixed, or even unmixed with oats, serves 



BEGULABITT IN FEEDING 283 

well for horses which are kept daily at work which 
calls for large expenditures of eiiei*gy, if the roughage 
is not also rich in carbohydrates. Bran may also be 
used but to a limited extent; for it is not sufficiently 
concentrated to furnish nutrients to satisfactorily sustain 
either driving- or work -horses when put to fatiguing 
work. If fed liberally, it tends to keep the bowels too 
lax. When scalded it is not infrequently fed to relieve 
constipation in horses. About four quarts of bran may 
be thoroughly moistened with boiling water, covered 
up, and left until the next feeding time, when it 
should be diluted and fed warm. A gill of linseed 
meal per day, mixed with other concentrates, serves 
to keep the bowels in good condition, and to brighten 
and soften the hair. Barley and rye are also used as 
concentrates to a limited extent. Both are much im- 
proved if ground and mixed with other concentrates. 
Wheat is sometimes used for feeding horses, but it is 
the least satisfactory of all the foods mentioned. 
Before it is fed, it should be mixed with other grains 
and ground into meal. Cottonseed meal, a valuable 
concentrate for feeding cattle and sheep, is not relished 
by horses. 

In closing this discussion on feeds and feeding, it 
may be said that regularity in feeding and watering, 
judgment in withholding a part of, or adding to the 
ration, and in the kinds of food to be used under any 
particular condition, all play important parts. With 
mows and bins full of good foods, some horsemen are 
unable to keep their horses up to a high state of 
efficiency. They appear to acquire the habit of caring 



284 THJ^ EOBSE 

for their horses in the wrong way or at the wrong 
time, or both. The very breath of such an attendant 
seems to be poison to the horse. Horses should be 
used but moderately for a short time after they have 
partaken of a full meal. Horses kept in cold stables 
should receive wider rations than those kept in warm 
stables. "The skill of the groom is half the ration." 
For a more extended discussion of this subject see 
"Feeds and Feeding," by Director William Arnon 
Henry, Madison, Wis. 

HARNESS 

Care should be taken to fit and adjust the harness 
to the horse. This is particularly true of the young 
horse when he is first put at work. His shoulders 
and mouth, the places likely to first show abrasion, 
are tender. Then, too, if he be somewhat fleshy when 
put to severe work, the collar, which was none too 
large at first, becomes too large for the neck after a 
few weeks. 

In this chapter, the care, management, etc., of 
moderate -sized horses put to light work is treated; 
in Chapter XTX, the driving and care of draft- and 
plow -horses will receive attention. 

After the collar, the bridle is of next importance. 
First, the length of the headstall should be .so 
adjusted as to bring the bit in mild contact with the 
bars of the mouth, so that there may be quick 
response to the slightest pressure of the driving reins. 
If the headstall of the bridle is too short, the bars 



THE OVERDRAW CHECK 285 

of the mouth soon become sore and finally unrespon- 
sive; if too long, the horse becomes careless of the 
driver's wishes. 

A good -sized straight bit, covered with leather, if 
the mouth is tender, cannot be improved upon except 
in a few special cases when a more severe one may be 
required. "Pullers" are frequently cured of their 
disagreeable habit when the change is made from a 
severe bit to a straight, mild one. With the severe 
bit, the horse was in constant pain and hence ner- 
vous and excited. Being excited, his only desire was 
to go. With a bit that gives pain and a driver a little 
afraid of his horse, it is no wonder that the horse 
pulls. The horse, at one end of the lines, soon dis- 
covers the qualities of the man at the other end. 

The crupper becomes necessary if no breeching is 
used on the harness. The modern fad of driving 
without breeching is to be condemned. If the horse 
is reined high, the crupper is almost indispensable. 
But horses should not be reined high. If the crupper 
is used, care should be taken to have it fit and to keep 
it clean, lest it abraid the tail and produce a disagree- 
able, if not a vicious horse. Last of all comes the 
check-rein, with or without the over-draw attach- 
ment. Two radically different practices prevail in the 
use of the check -rein. Some drivers over -use it; 
some do not use it at all. Is not a happy medium 
between these two practices best? The over-draw 
rein, if worn tight, is nothing less than cruel. (Fig. 
88.) It makes the horse hold his head, not only in an 
uncomfortable, but in an unsightly position. If no 



286 



THE HORSE 



check-rein is used, most horses become slovenly and 
careless in their habits, and, when not moving, the 
temptation to eat grass or earth becomes too great 
to be resisted. The feet, too, may get entangled in 
the lines and the collar fall half-way down the neck. 





^^^^^ .Jhm.,^^r- 





Fia. 83. A rein cruelly used. (Also see page 298.) 

It is the abuse of the check -rein, not the use of it, 
which is to be deplored. Horses should always be 
checked up mildly, for it is the business of the horse 
when in harness to attend strictly to his duties. With- 
out a check -rein he seldom does. I imagine that a 
check -rein on some people who walk with heads bent 
low and rounded shoulders, or sit on their backs 
instead of their buttocks, would be beneficial. Hap- 
pily, many of our young ladies are learning to walk 



BLIRDUBS-USE AND ABUSE 287 

erect and keep their heads perpendicular to their 
spinal column. Perhaps the high, stiff collars have 
had something to do with this improvement. 

Shall, or shall not, blinders be used? Again we 
have a wide diversity of opinion. Here, too, as with 
the check -rein, extremes should be avoided. A horse 
should be directed by contact with his nerves of sen- 
sation and by spoken words. He has no business to 
be looking backwards for orders. If he does, he soon 
imagines that he is "bossing" the job himself. Strict 
and prompt obedience is best secured when the highest 
intelligence directs. A small projection, not a blind, 
attached to the headstall of the bridle, does not keep 
the eye hot nor obstruct the side or front vision, while 
it does prevent the horse from looking backward, 
thereby conserving his vision and attention for the 
objects in his pathway. The breast collar is admissable 
when the load is light. 

DRIVING 

The art of driving a horse or a locomotive must be 
learned largely by practice, as both are complex 
machines. The former differs from the latter in that 
he is a highly organized living thing and therefore 
may attempt at any time to act on volition, while the 
locomotive must be acted upon. While the horse may 
and should, within narrow limitations, act without 
directions, he is largely like a machine under the hand 
of a master. His mental powers should be trained to 
willing obedience rather than toward originality. Since 



THE HOBSJS 

a well-bred horse has a will of his own, it will require 
more skill to drive him efficiently and safely than to 
drive the locomotive. 

Horses are usually badly driven and waste much 
of their power and flesh to little or no purpose. Per- 
haps some suggestions as to driving may result in 
easing the burdens of the horse and in making him 
more efficient. Constant nagging with words or whip 
soon ruins courage and spirit. The driver is almost 
certain to get into the habit of nagging when the 
horse is continuously required to do more than he 
should. Constant repetition of word and whip, it is 
true, is the only way to get more service out of an 
animal than it should perform. Even a horse of high 
courage will at last fail to resent the cruel treatment 
of its driver. He soon learns that "It is hard to kick 
against the pricks." 

In ancient times oxen were driven by means of a 
long stick, or goad, one end of which was provided with 
a piece of sharpened metal. The animals soon learned 
that, if they kicked against the pricks, it not only 
increased their punishment but resulted in being 
pricked again for kicking. Some modern drivers act 
on the principle of ancient ox-drivers. 

If the horse's spirit has not been broken and his 
powers have been sustained and he has not been 
overworked, and yet he is not responsive and obedient, 
what is to be done ? There is no way but to energize 
him now and then with a sharp switch. If this hurts 
your feelings more than it does the horse, get clear of 
him and breed one that has more courage and spirit. 



PUNISHMENT FOB DISOBEDIENCE 289 

Horses become discouraged and disobedient when 
they are punished for they know not what or are given 
double commands, as, for instance, "Whoa, back." 
They get disgusted, — I suppose a horse can get dis- 
gusted, — and finally mad when required to back a load 
several times, when if the driver had cramped or 
directed the front part of the vehicle at the right angle, 
it would have been in the position desired by a single 
effort. 

Horses, like men, should receive punishment for dis- 
obedience; but, unlike men, they should receive theirs 
here, and when the offense is committed, or they may 
escape. There is often great cruelty shown to horses, 
which is justly condemned. On the other hand, there is 
much "namby pamby" literature on the subject of kind- 
ness to horses. One of the things desired in horses is 
strict and prompt obedience; failing to obtain this by 
kind means, intelligently applied, then punishment for 
disobedience should fall quickly. With brutal drivers, 
the punishment for disobedience or non- performance of 
duty is always excessive. Excessive punishment tends 
to produce viciousness and lack of confidence, and, 
above all, it is cruel. A single stroke with a light, 
stinging whip will do more to prevent future disobedi- 
ence than swear -words and many blows with whip and 
club. 

If the driver is careless and lazy, so will the horse 
soon become. The light touch on the reins and the firm, 
kind, cheery voice do much to inspire the horse with 
courage and obedience. Some men, even young men, 
are so constituted that they should never be set at 



290 THE HOBSE 

driving horses. These I do not expect to reach and ben- 
efit. But, discarding this class and do the best we may 
in educating the youths of the land, there always will 
be the unenergized and unskilful horseman. Unless one 
is proud, not vain, of his horse, he can not acquire the 
nice judgment which tells him when to drive fast, when 
slow, and when the horse has done enough. Listen 

to the horse — 

Up hill bear me; 

Down hill spare me; 

On the level spare me not, 

But cool me when I'm hot. 

Proud enough to drive so that the wheels of the vehicle 
will be kept in the beaten track and directed away from 
stones and holes, — which can be accomplished only by 
watchfulness and by being constantly in touch, through 
the reins, with the horse. The horse at farm- work 
requires comparatively little direction; and but little 
skill, if applied at the right moment, is needed to 
direct his energies along the most efficient lines, when 
at slow work. 

WATERING 

Horses that are used for driving and for light 
work are usually in higher physical condition, not 
necessarily fatter, than farm- and draft -horses. Since 
their hours of labor are usually not so many nor their 
work so exhausting, they do not require so much water 
as farm -horses, but they are likely to be injured by 
drinking large amounts of water at one time. Horses 
which are driven long distances may perspire freely for 



WA TUBING 291 

eight to ten hours per day, and they are apt to come to 
the stable at nigfht not only depleted of vitality but 
over -thirsty as well; in which case great care should 
be exercised in restricting the amount of water until the 
animal has recovered some of its normal vitality. Under 
the conditions described, the horse should first of all be 
given a small amount of thin oatmeal gruel. If this 
be fed at from 90° to 100° Fahr., so much the better. 
It is not so much the amount of water nor its tempera- 
ture as the amount of vigor which the horse possesses 
when he is watered that governs the result. 

The horse, like the man, has far less resisting power 
on some days than on others, — that is, he is not always 
at his best. The careless driver fails to discover this, 
and, when the horse shows weariness, it is accounted to 
him as laziness and the whip is used to stimulate his 
flagging energies. When he arrives at the stable, he 
may be in just the right condition to be injured by even 
a single pail of cold water. Horses which are fed all 
they will eat of hay that is dirty or that contains a large 
per cent of clover desire much water. In time they get 
into the habit of eating and drinking too much. This 
results in large and unsightly abdomens, difficult 
breathing, and general sluggishness, and is likely to 
result in the horse's having the "heaves." The animal 
becomes inefficient, not because of its breeding, but 
through the ignorance or carelessness of the driver. 
The horse that is driven four to six hours continuously 
should be watered midway on his journey; though he 
be quite warm, no harm will result therefrom. How- 
ever, he should be driveu somewhat slowly for the first 



292 THE ffOBSU 

few minutes after he has drunk. No horse should be 
called on for his highest effort immediately after eating 
or drinking heartily. It will do no harm to again em- 
phasize the need of furnishing the horse a full and 
frequent supply of water, if he is healthy, and it is 
desired to keep him so. 

GROOMING 

The grooming of the horse, under certain circum- 
stances, becomes an important factor in efficiency of 
performance. Those called on for rapid work for short 
periods can hardly be groomed too much. Relatively, 
too much attention is usually given to the bodj^ and 
too little to the legs. The groom has pride in the 
" shine ; " the driver has more interest in having the 
legs hard and limber. The legs of a horse should 
always receive first and largest attention: often they 
receive the last and least. Much of the body -grooming 
of the horse may be dispensed with if blankets are 
judiciously used. 

The proper use of blankets requires some skill. If 
the horse is allowed to stand on the street in cold or 
windy weather, he should be covered with a heavy, 
large blanket immediately upon stopping, although he 
may be sweating. But if the horse arrives at the 
stable sweaty, where he is measurably protected, he 
should not be blanketed until he has ceased to steam. 
For, if he be covered at once, little opportunity is given 
for him to dry off, and the blanket will become damp 
and the hair may remain so all night. True, this diffi- 



BLANKETS 293 

ciilty may be partly obviated by substituting a dry 
blanket one or two hours later. If the blanket is not 
used until the steam and surface heat have measurably 
subsided, — which it usually does in from fifteen to 
twenty minutes, — the hair will be dry and smooth the 
following morning, when the scurff may be removed 
easily by the use of a stiff brush. The use of a stable 
blanket, as well as one for the street, cannot be recom- 
mended too highly. The former should be of light 
material, and not so large as the latter. A blanket of 
some loosely woven cheap material may be used from 
June to September, and the ordinary light winter 
stable blanket for the rest of the year. Stable blankets 
may be dispensed with in hot weather if flies are 
excluded by screens or by darkening the stables by the 
use of curtains; but they should be used in the fall, as 
soon as the nights become cool. Such early use will 
arrest, too, in a marked degree, the growth of hair both 
in length and density. The coat of hair being kept 
short and comparatively thin, the horse does not sw^eat 
so profusely, when driven, as he would if the stable 
blanket is not used until the beginning of winter. 
The early use of stable blankets usually obviates the 
need of clipping the horse. However, some horses 
have such dense and long coats of hair that health 
and ease of grooming require that the clipping be 
performed, but such woolly horses are rare. In any 
case, the clipping should be done before midwinter, 
not in March, the most trying month in the year for 
a driving-horse. For some time after the horse is 
clipped, both stable and street blanket should be 



294 TEE HORSE 

doubled, or those of greater weight and warmth, secured 
around the abdomen with safety pins, should be sub- 
stituted for the light ones. In warm weather the horse 
enjoys a sponge bath, and the skin is cleaned and 
hair benefited thereby. Much space has been given to 
the use of blankets, with the view of keeping the 
horse comfortable and the skin and hair pliable and 
presentable, with the minimum of body grooming, an 
excess of which tends to keep the skin too sensitive 
for our erratic climate. 

The care of the legs is really of more importance 
than the care of the body. They are subjected to 
severe concussion and strain; often covered with mud 
or ice, or both, or soaked with water the entire work 
day. It is little wonder, then, that they become 
unsound, sometimes useless. Added to mud and ice 
in the winter, is the ever-present dust in the summer, 
which fills the hair and pores of the legs fai more 
than of the body. All these necessarily adverse con- 
ditions tend to injure the legs in time; hence they 
should be cared for promptly and with skill and 
judgment. 

When the horse comes to the stable with muddy 
legs, they should be roughly cleaned by using a half- 
worn common broom. In an hour, or when the legs 
have dried off, they should be rubbed and brushed 
until they are quite dry and clean. Then, too, such 
rubbing will restore circulation, and the following 
morning the horse will be supple and ready for work, 
even if his legs receive but little attention just before 
going to his task. In other words, fifteen minutes' time 



GEOOMING 295 

spent in cleaning and rubbing the legs at night is 
more efficient in promoting sound, strong legs than a 
half -hour's time spent on them in the morning. It 
all comes to this, — horses are usually kept at work so 
late in the day that time is not allowed for properly 
cleaning and caring for them after their day's work 
is done. That which should be done promptly at night 
is put off until the morning, when the desire is to get 
to work early; thus cutting short the time which 
should be given to caring for the legs, and finally 
they are not cared for at all. For what is the use in 
cleaning them at six -thirty, when at seven they will 
be as muddy as ever? When the weather is warm, the 
legs should be washed and afterwards rubbed dry. 
Nothing contributes more toward producing diseased 
limbs than allowing the horse to remain all night 
with damp legs covered with mud, especially in damp 
or cold stables. Depletion of flesh produced by neglect 
can easily be remedied, but injury to the legs from 
the same cause is often irreparable. Wherever wheat 
or rye straw is used for bedding, the very best possible 
material will be at hand for cleaning and invigorating 
the legs. A willing groom with a wisp of clean straw 
in each hand are all the appliances necessary for put- 
ting the legs in splendid condition. The old fash- 
ioned iron currycomb is not well adapted to cleaning 
the horse's body much less to cleaning his legs. 

Horses sleep but little — from three to four hours 
out of the twenty -four; hence the more need of 
making them comfortable at night. Narrow stalls, 
insufficient bedding and stiffened joints on rising, all 



296 THIJ HORSE 

discourage the horse from lying down as much as he 
should, or from lying down at all. All these condi- 
tions should be remedied, because such change would 
be both profitable and humane. Stalls should be wide 
and well bedded. However, ample space and a com- 
fortable bed may not only induce the horse to rest by 
lying down, but to roll also, even to roll over, in 
which case he is likely to get cast, that is, get his 
feet higher than his back and against the side of the 
stall. If so he suifers, may even die, if not promptly 
relieved. 

To prevent the horse from rolling over, fasten a 
small pulley to the ceiling over the horse's head, and 
a second one nearly over the side of the stall. Attach 
a ring to the top of the halter, to which fasten a 
small rope, pass the rope through both pulleys, and 
fasten the end to a weight of one or two pounds. 
The length of the rope should be so adjusted as to 
cause the weight to strike the pulley when the nose 
of the horse is from six to eight inches from the 
floor when he is lying down. A horse cannot roll if 
he is prevented from getting his head flat on the 
floor or ground. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

''HANDS" IN DRIVING 

By F. S. Peer 

Attention has already been called to the necessity 
of preserving the sensitiveness of a colt's mouth, when 
educating him, b\^ the use of a bit covered with leather; 
when he is having his first lessons with the bit and 
dumm -jockey, such lessons are commonly known as 
"mouthing" and are of the greatest importance. When 
we consider that our every wish or command is to bo 
communicated to a horse along the lines to a bit in his 
mouth and further, — when we take into account that 
mere strength with us is as nothing compared with the 
strength of a horse, — the necessity of preserving a 
horse's mouth as sensitive as possible is apparent. 

Americans, as a rule, are fairly good at anything 
they undertake, but in the question of "mouthing" 
colts, and "hands" in driving, they are about as bad as 
possible. We may be pardoned for dwelling a little on 
this point, for the want of "good hands" is one of the 
most universal and most glaring defects in American 
horsemanship. 

By good hands in driving is meant that delicacy of 
touch that never pulls at a horse's mouth more than is 
necessary, and never, on any account, when it is not 
necessary. The reason why Americans have such bad 

(297) 



298 THE HOUSE 

hands is because they do not hold the reins properly 
when driving. It is a pity that, when we inherited from 
our English, Scotch and Irish ancestors a love for 
horses, we left behind us their perfect hands for driving 
them. Everywhere in Great Britain one sees horses 
being driven with perfect hands,— -farm boys, lads on 
delivery wagons, cab -drivers, teamsters, everybody; 
while in America, with the exception of a few coachmen 
in cities and an occasional gentleman -owner who has 
been properly instructed, we are about the worst lot of 
reinsmen to be found in any civilized country. I am 
well aware that this will possibly be challenged or 
looked upon as a very severe criticism. The trouble is, 
our training has been wrong from the start, and as we 
are, generally speaking, all wrong, we do not know how 
bad we are. 

The American style of holding the reins is distinctly 
our own; we have neither inherited it nor borrowed it 
from any other nation. How, then, did we come to pos- 
sess it? By copying after the style of jockies, sitting in 
a sulky driving on a race-track. Nor is "hands" the 
only thing we have copied from the trotting track to no 
purpose. I refer to the overdraw check. This instru- 
ment of torture, as well as the method of holding the 
reins, has a purpose on the track, but off of it they are 
alike abominable. 

The sole purpose of the overdraw is to extend the 
nose of a trotter so as to give him a straighter air pas- 
sage from nose to lungs, which, in races where the 
fraction of a second wins, is undoubtedly useful, as the 
volume of air to be pumped in and out under such terri- 



HOLDING THE REINS 299 

ble pressure needs the greatest possible freedom. Thus 
the overdraw has its legitimate use. To use it for any 
other purpose is to abuse it. A trotting-horse can stand 
it during a race lasting a few minutes; but, when a 
poor dumb brute is made to carry his head out of a 
natural position for hours, it becomes a torture. So 
universal has the fashion for overdraws become that, 
unless it is especially ordered, you can hardly find any- 
thing else on a ready-made single harness. It is, as 
above stated, from this same source, and with no more 
reason, that Americans have copied the prevailing 
style in this country of holding the reins when driving. 
The proper way of holding the reins when driving is 
to take them in the left hand; the nigh, or left rein 
coming into the hand over the forefinger, the off, or 
right rein coming into the hand between the middle and 
ring finger. The left hand holds the reins; the driving 
or guiding is to be done by the right hand, which carries 
the w^hip and manipulates the reins. The arm of the 
driver from shoulder to elbow hangs naturally, the fore- 
arm nearly at right angles to the same; the hands 
nearly meet in front of the body in a perfectly natural 
position, thumbs uppermost. This position of the hands 
and reins gives to the driver the best possible control of 
the lines, at the same time enabling him to keep at all 
times a light touch on the horse's mouth, which is not 
only the proper way but the way all horses prefer to be 
driven. A horse properly bitted or mouthed as a colt, 
and the sensitiveness of the mouth preserved, the 
slightest touch of either rein with the pressure of a 
finger will be quite sufficient to quiet him. 



300 



THJS HO BSE 



The American, or jockey style of holding the reins is 
not only bad in form but ruinous to a horse's mouth; 
because, with the arms extended and a grasp of each 
line in separate hands, the weight of the arms and hands 
is constantly resting against the horse's mouth. Pulling 
hands make pulling horses, because, when a man takes 
hold of the lines with extended hand, although he is 
not conscious of pulling at his horse's mouth and is not 
in reality doing so by a muscular effort, the weight of 
his hands and arms resting on the reins amounts to the 
same thing. So much for the constant pulling on a 
horse's mouth; that of necessity makes it calloused or so 
hardened as to be insensible to pressure, until the driver 
has simply to pull his head about by main force to let 
him know what is required. When the driver pulls at a 
horse's mouth, it hurts. He finds, however, that if he 
gives in to it he is touched with the whip to make him, 
as we say, "drive up to the bit,"— so we will have some- 
thing to rest the weight of our arms and hands against. 
The horse soon learns, also, that the harder he makes 
the driver pull at his mouth, the less painful it is; 
because, when the pressure is great enough, it shuts off 
the circulation and the parts become numb or deadened 
to the pain. Thus it comes about that pulling hands 
make pulling horses. 

On the plow, we see horses dragging along a 
plowman who has the reins about his body; again, 
with a pair of hands as heavy as lead, arms extended, 
the horses are made to pull the driver along in addi- 
tion to the harrow, and the driver is by far the most 
fatiguing pull of the two. You may say that he has 



TEE GENTLE HANDS IN DBIVING 301 

to do it, — can't hold them: then it is the fault of 
their early training. All jou can do in such a case 
is to drop the bit into a new place and make the 
best of it. Sometimes the change to a large, smooth 
rubber curved bit will stop a horse's pulling. The 
proper mouthing or bitting of a young horse is not 
half appreciated, and less understood or practiced in 
this country than in Europe. Anything and every- 
thing you can do to preserve the sensitiveness of his 
mouth should be done. 

While there is some excuse for holding on to a 
horse that is already a puller, there is no excuse what- 
ever for driving him with a slack rein when he comes 
to a walk. In this way, we teach him that when we 
pull back we want him to go fast, and when we let 
up entirely he is to walk, — which is just contrarj^ to 
what we really intend. Never pull at a horse's mouth 
an ounce more than is necessary, and never drive him 
for a rod without a light touch of the reins so you can 
just feel the bit. You can easily do this, when your 
hand is in the position recommended (thumbs up), hy 
permitting the wrist to give and take to the forward 
and backward oscillation of a horse's head when 
moving. 

As to hands in driving, we are the laughing stock 
of the world. ^ No system or form could be devised 
that could be worse than the American style. It is 
simply ruinous to a horse's mouth. It is a most diffi- 
cult thing to find in America a horse of any natural 

1 See "Cross Country With Horse and Hound," by F. Sherman 
Peer. 



302 THE HORSE 

spirit which has not had his mouth damaged, if not 
ruined, by heavy hands. It is our one common fault, 
which accounts for the special emphasis placed upon 
it in this chapter. 

In teaching a colt to rein, his first lesson,— after 
a week or two of bitting,— should be with long reins 
on the barn floor or some other small enclosure. In 
addition to the reins and a soft, easy, smooth, straight 
bar -bit, place a non-shurring loop about his under jaw, 
and pass the rope about his head and down through 
the loop in his mouth. When he attempts to run or 
get away, take him in hand by the rope, leaving the 
reins principally for guiding purposes. This will 
teach him the lesson you wish to impart, without 
endangering the sensitiveness of his mouth where 
the bit naturally comes. 



i 



CHAPTER XIX 

CABE OF DBAFT-HOBSES AND FABM-HOBSES 

Draft -HORSES, in this connection, include all horses 
used for slow or comparatively slow and exhausting 
work, especially farm -horses used for tilling the 
land. Horses in a wild state graze largely at night, 
while cattle feed largely in day time. The horse's 
stomach is relatively small, implying that he should 
be fed more often than cattle, and less at a time. 
Horses do not eat so fast as cattle, and do not remasti- 
cate their food, as do cattle and sheep. Horses may 
be fed three or four times daily, while cattle and sheep 
do well when fed but twice. The morning ration of 
the horse should contain about one -fourth of his total 
daily ration, and it should be given him some little time 
before being put to hard work. Another fourth of his 
food may be fed at noon. On the farm, one hour's 
nooning instead of two, as of yore, is best. The hour 
saved will shorten the work -day one hour at night. 
This will give time for the horse to cool off before 
the dampness and falling temperature of the evening 
occur, which tend to produce that disagreeable and 
dangerous condition which a person feels in the evening 
whose shirt is saturated with the prespiration of the 
day. Horses, and especially oxen, if perspiring freely, 

(303) 



304 THJiJ ROBSU 

and worked late, are frequenth- found in the morning 
with the hair and skin damp, and in a condition of 
lassitude which unfits them for entering upon the day's 
labor with vigor. Ten hours of faithful work per day 
is quite enough for either man or beast; and such 
work would better be accomplished by starting early 
than by continuing late. If the horses are brought to 
the stable early, they have time to eat hay and to rest, 
after which one -fourth of the grain ration is fed. Just 
before the attendant retires, the last fourth of the 
day's ration may be given. Or, if this is too much 
trouble, the horses may be left to eat hay for an hour 
while the teamster is eating supper; after which the 
legs are cleaned, and then one half of the day's ration 
of grain may be fed. The hay ration should be fed 
about the time and in about the same proportion as the 
grain is fed. How much grain and how much hay 
should suffice for each horse it is impossible to say; since 
the size of the horse, his ability to digest and assimilate 
food, the kind of food consumed, and the work per- 
formed vary widely. When horses are put to unusually 
severe tasks for a month or two, when work is press- 
ing, as they usually are on a farm, it is better to 
increase their grain than their hay ration. Quite a 
large part of the energy in food, especially if it is 
coarse food, is used for preparing the ration for assimi- 
lation. Coarse and unconcentrated foods are frequently 
more expensive per unit of net available energy than 
concentrated ones. It is not the total energy of the 
food so much as the available energy over and above 
that required to masticate and digest it that gov- 



DB. H. P. ABMSBY'S A'XPJSBIMUJVTS 305 

erns value. Dr. H. P. Armsby's experiments show 
the following results: "Of the total or 'gross' energy 
of hay, about 44 per cent was capable of conversion 
into the kinetic form in the animal, while the remain- 
ing 56 per cent was found as potential energy in the 
excreta. Of the 44 per cent which I have called metaho- 
lizahle energy, about 63 per cent, equivalent to 27.72 
per cent of the gross energy of the hay, was found to 
be available for the maintenance of the animal, while 
the remaining 37 per cent of the metabolizable 
energy, under our conditions of experiment, simply 
went to increase the heat -production of the animal. 
This 37 per cent of the metabolizable energy seems 
to represent the expenditure of energy which is in- 
volved in making the remaining 63 per cent available 
for the actual uses of the organism. The above results 
represent the average of four experiments only, on a 
single animal, and of course should be generalized 
from very cautiously." 

The more concentrated the food is, within proper 
limits, the less per cent of energy is needed to make it 
available. This fact explains in part why animals 
cannot be sustained and produce sufficient energy for 
growth and work on unconcentrated food, difficult to 
masticate and prepare for assimilation. It is because 
too great a per cent of the energy of the food is used 
in its preparation by the stomach, hence the net 
energy is small. 

When horses are doing light work or are idle, not 
only will less food suffice, but the proportion of rough, 
cheap food to the concentrated may be increased. 



306 THJS HOUSE 

Horses should be fed slightly less on idle days than 
when emploj^ed. Much of the trouble, particularly 
bowel -complaints, on Mondays is due to over -eating 
on Sundays. When a record was kept with farm -work 
horses, it was found that there were more than twice 
as many indisposed horses on Monday as on any other 
day. When the Sunday's ration was slightly reduced, 
the health was equally good on all days. When prac- 
ticable, work -horses should have some exercise every 
day. This can most easily be secured by turning them 
out for a few hours in a paddock, on idle days. If 
the horses are at severe work, they do better on dry 
food than on green grasses and clover. If horses are 
allowed all the green food they desire at night, bowel 
trouble may occur the next day if the weather is warm 
and the work hard. 

Not infrequently the hay runs short in late spring 
and grass is fed in the stables as a substitute. This 
is all very well if the work is light. New hay, while 
still heating in the mow, is always dangerous. The 
health of a horse at hard work is governed largely by 
the food he consumes. A little grass mixed with old, 
drj^ hay may be fed safely, but new hay passing 
through a sweat should never be used. In hot weather, 
horses at severe work in the fierce sun do best if they 
are kept in comfortable stables at night and are fed 
on roughage and concentrates of the previous year's 
growth. Some horsemen understand this, and will pay 
more for old than for new oats or hay. So the hay- 
buyer does not bale hay for the city until it has gone 
through the "sweat" in the mow or stack. 



CASE AND RATION FOB LIGHT WORK 307 

Neither green sheaf oats, nor threshed oats which 
have not been seasoned for three months or more, 
should be fed, — especially to fast drivers and hard- 
worked draft -animals. 

So far, the feeding of horses used for draft and 
severe continuous farm work has been discussed; but 
there are many horses on farms which have light, 
intermittent work, in which case quite different 
methods of feeding may be practiced. If pastures are 
abundant, the horses maj^ be turned out at night, and 
in the day-time when not in use. They may receive 
less than one -half as much concentrated food as the 
horse at severe toil. A good practice is to bring the 
horses to the stables in the morning, that they may be 
quickly available if wanted. A little hay and grain 
may serve for their noon feed. If the pastures are 
satisfactory, the horses may be turned out in the early 
evening without having received any food whatever in 
the stables, even if they have been at moderate work. 

Little or no grain food or grooming or care will be 
necessary, provided the horse's work is not hai'd or 
continued for too many hours a day. If the outside 
covering of the horse does look a little unkempt, it 
will correspond with the clothes of the driver, both 
being suited to their work. The horse which is used 
for purely utilitarian purposes should be the servant 
of man; not man the servant of the horse, as is some- 
times the case when the owner waits on his pet horse 
more than he does on his wife. This may be appro- 
priate if the horse is kept for conspicuous display and 
the wife for work. 



308 THE HOMSH 

In America, food is so abundant and varied that the 
horseman has opportunity of wide choice. Hay, bright 
straw, corn-stalks and even silage serve well for rough- 
age. Usually all of these fodders have a wide nutri- 
tive ratio and therefore require that the grain ration 
be narrow. The reader will have no difficulty in com- 
pounding a suitable ration after studying Appendix III. 
(See Chapter XVII for feeding driving- horses and those 
employed at other light, quick work.) Farm-horses 
when at moderate work, and especially mares with foal 
at foot, may wholly or in part be soiled — fed in the 
stables on green food — especially if their grain ration 
be abundant and well seasoned. Grass, clover oats and 
peas are good for summer soiling. See "Soiling," by 
F. S. Peer. 

WATERING 

In warm weather, horses which are working hard 
enjoj^ a sip of water before partaking of their morning 
meal, and even in cool weather some horses relish a 
drink before breakfast. All horses can be trained to 
this habit, and it is probable that such habit promotes 
healthfulness, since, if watered before they are fed, 
they are not likely to drink much after their morning 
meal. Large quantities of cold water taken into the 
stomach immediately after a meal tend to arrest diges- 
tion. It may also cause serious irritation of the intes- 
tines by washing undigested food into the alimentary 
canal. If provision could be made on the farm without 
too great expense for watering horses when at work, in 
warm weather, in the middle of the fore- and afternoon. 



HEATING DRINKING WATEB 309 

it would be both profitable and humane, — for without 
water they often suffer when sweating profusely. 
Horses naturally drink when they come from their 
labors to the stable, and this is well if they do not 
drink too much; for water taken when the animal is 
thirsty, before eating, quickly passes into the circula- 
tion, whereas the same amount of water taken after a 
heartj" meal would tend, as before stated, to arrest 
digestion. Cold water taken in large quantities, when 
the horse is unusually depressed or when over -warm, 
may chill the stomach to the point where it reacts but 
slowly, in which case colic or founder may result. If 
reaction comes promptlj^ as it should when a cold- 
water internal bath is taken, the stomach is stimulated 
instead of being depressed. If horses are thirst}- when 
fed, they do not relish their food. A full supply of 
water in the system is quite as necessary as a full 
suppl}^ of food. It should never be forgotten that water 
is the great vehicle which carries food into, and most 
of the refuse material out of, circulation. 

Heating water for cattle has been tried to some ex- 
tent, but the practice has been largely abandoned, the 
reason for which I think is explainable. First, no suit- 
able appliances were at hand when the attempt was 
made to heat the water, and the temperature was not 
raised above lukewarm. Lukewarm water is not only 
less palatable than cool or hot water but may be posi- 
tively nauseating. Water raised to 98° or 100° Fahr. 
is highly relished by both cattle and horses in cold 
weather. Hot water saves food, promotes health and 
digestion, and may, under certain conditions, prevent 



310 THE HOUSE 

chills and founder in severely worked horses. The only 
reason for not providing it is that it is not usually con- 
venient to do so. In a few cases, steam is in the barn 
or can be generated easily and cheaply, in which case it 
is wise and profitable to heat the water for both cattle 
and horses, in cold weather. Horses consume less water 
than cows in milk. The average for horses at work is 
not far from forty pounds and for cattle in milk sixty 
pounds daily. The taking into the system of such large 
quantities of water often at or near the freezing point, 
is not conducive to economj^ or health; for this water 
must be raised by the use of food to blood-heat, quickl}^ 
Since it takes more units of heat to raise a unit of water 
one degree in temperature than any other food sub- 
stance, it can easily be understood that a considerable 
part of the ration of the animal must be used in rais- 
ing the temperature of the- water. However, the matter 
is largely a financial one. In some parts of our coun- 
try roughage is cheaper than coal; in other sections, 
the reverse is true. 

In the winter, horses are likely to become consti- 
pated. Their voidings should be watched closely, for 
constipation is the mother of many ills. Carrots are 
much relished by horses kept on dry foods. Unsalable 
apples, if fairly ripe, or small potatoes, maj^ be fed to 
advantage in small quantities, though thej^ are of small 
nutritive value. Mangolds are fairly good and cheap of 
production, as twenty -five to fortj^ tons per acre can be 
raised and the cost per bushel is not more than one -half 
as much as of carrots. A hot bran mash is a most excel- 
lent regulator of the bowels. However, a gill per day of 



OIL-MEAL AND SALT 311 

oil-meal helps to narrow the almost invariably too wide 
ration, corrects constipation and tends to make the skin 
pliable and the hair soft. Nevertheless, it is seldom 
that the farmer can be persuaded to purchase even a 
single ton of oil-meal, or to feed it even in an experi- 
mental way. He has been feeding, for instance, four 
quarts of grain at a time, the measure full. If he adds 
a pound of oil-meal to the ration, the supply is soon 
exhausted. He has seen no marked beneficial results, 
since he has not observed closely enough to have seen 
the constant little changes for the better, day by day; 
and he comes to the conclusion that his twenty -five 
dollars which he paid for the ton of oil-meal has been 
thrown away, and, of course, purchases no more. 

Draft- and farm -horses require more salt than do 
those put to less severe work. Salt should be accessible 
at all times in the stall. The common soft salt is to be 
preferred to rock salt, especially the cheap kinds, as the 
tongues of the animals may be irritated by licking it, 
notably of those requiring a liberal supph'. Four horses 
on dry feed ate twenty -eight pounds of salt in fifty -six 
days, or two ounces per day per horse. In experiments 
with cows, at the end of forty -three days it was found 
that they consumed three and fifteen one hundredth 
ounces of salt per cow per daj'. 

Horses relish a little hard -wood ashes, and it used to 
be a common practice among farmers to supply them 
with limited quantities, once each week. Horses, as well 
as pigs, when fed on dry food, appear to be benefited 
by small quantities of charcoal, if thej^ do not have 
access to the ground. 



312 THE HOBSE 

BLANKETS 

What has been said in regard to the use of blankets, 
in Chapter XVII, is true with slight modification when 
applied to their use on draft- and farm -horses. Stable 
blankets when judiciously used promote health and 
economize labor, but, when used injudiciously or of too 
heavy weight, they tend to injure appetite and to make 
horses more sensitive to the many vicissitudes which 
they are called upon to pass through. 

Fly-blankets to be used outside of the stables are 
not to be recommended; fly -nets are, under certain 
conditions. Farm -horses should always be supplied 
with a throat -latch cloth when the annoying bot-flies 
are present. Fly -blankets of strong enough material 
to last a reasonable length of time prevent the free 
radiation of heat and moisture from the body. Leather 
fly-nets are not objectionable. Fly-nets and fly-blankets 
are both annoying to the teamster, are more or less 
expensive, and should not be used if reliable material 
for spraying the horse can be secured. The "Eureka 
Fly -killer" and some others are fairly satisfactory^ when 
used twice daily; they largely protect the animal, and 
do not soil or injure the hair, and, all things considered, 
they are cheaper and more satisfactory outdoor fly- 
protectors than blankets. A little sprayer suitable for 
applying the material can be purchased at almost any 
hardware store for a dollar or less. 

Even more pains should be taken in fitting the 
harness of draft- and farm -horses than of drivers. 
See Chapter XVII. 



HOBSES SUITED TO THEIR WOBK 313 

Horses designed for heavy work should not only be 
of strong build, but of height suited to their weight. 
Here, as in all other productive enterprises, the best of 
judgment should be exercised to adapt the weight of 
the horse to his work, and the soil upon which he is 
kept, and the climate in which he is used. Most farm- 
horses are too light for the work required, a few are 
too heavy. Some soils are easily tilled, some farms 
are hilly, some farmers do little plowing or other 
laborious team work. Manifestly, under such conditions, 
a horse weighing sixteen hundred pounds would be out 
of place. On the other hand, the plowing of tenacious 
soils, and the hauling of large loads are most economi- 
cally accomplished with horses of from twelve to six- 
teen hundred pounds' weight. It should be remembered, 
however, that a horse of twelve hundred pounds in 
go.od flesh may weigh but ten hundred pounds when 
thin in late summer, and the horse of sixteen hundred 
pounds may weigh but fourteen hundred pounds when 
called upon to draw the heaviest loads of the year. 
Finally, it may be said that, in general, the farmer 
has been mingling the trotting strains of blood too 
liberally with his nondescript mares, and sometimes 
with ruinous results. 

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF HORSES 

We make no plea for the light horse or for the 
heavy horse. What we do emphasize is the wisdom of 
breeding the horse which can perform the services 
required most effectively and economically under any 



314 THE HOBSU 

given conditions. Horses of light weight are at a great 
disadvantage when used for heavy loads, especially on 
an ascending road and on slippery pavements; while 
horses of heavy weight are at a disadvantage if used 
at light work, or for harrowing on soft ground. In the 
former instance, there is not enough weight to secure 
adequate traction — adhesive friction, — in the latter, 
there is unnecessarj^ traction due to unnecessary weight 
of team, for the work to be accomplished; hence the 
most economical expenditure of energj^ is not secured. 

DRIVING-, FARM- AND DRAFT -HORSES 

Of necessity these horses are driven slowly; hence 
full opportunity is given for avoiding obstructions 
without sharp and quick attention to the reins. Little 
or no display is required of the farm -horse; hence 
his check-rein may be loose, the driving reins fairly 
slack, and all his gear and movements arranged to 
perform service with the least possible expenditure of 
energy. This does not imply carelessness nor dis- 
obedience on the part of the horse. It does imply less 
guidance by rein, and more by words than would be 
suitable for a roadster. However, it keeps the draft - 
and farm -horse up to their highest standard of 
efficiency, if occasionally, when they are not wearied, 
they are driven rapidly with tight rein for a short 
distance; it does them good to stir them up now and 
then. Such drives bring other muscles into play than 
those used at slow, heavy work, enliven the team, 
and in manv wavs are beneficial. 



BACKING THE HORSE 



315 



The class of horses of which we are speaking are 
called upon to back frequently, often under most 
difficult conditions. To see energy expended for naught, 
watch a team backing after both man and team have 
lost their tempers. Back the horses come, saying as 
plainly as they can, "You fool driver"; then come 
loud words, a yanking of the reins, the sting of the 
lash, and back the load comes, but in the wrong place, 
and this may be repeated several times before the 
wagon is placed satisfactorily. No wonder there is 
need of a society for the prevention of cruelty to 
animals ! 




A trained horse with extraordinary development o»" muscle 
Owned by Dr. F. B. Howe, Ithaca, N. Y. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE HORSE'S FEET— SHOEING 

Much has been written on shoeing horses, but it is 
seldom that any two authorities agree. The mechanic 
who does the shoeing has his notions; usuall}^ they are 
nothing but notions, since he has no knowledge what 
ever of the anatomy of the foot, and little or no expe 
rience in the varied uses to which horses are put. The 
veterinarian is called on only when the feet have 
become abnormal or diseased. The owner of the horse, 
be he farmer, tradesman or a horse fancier, often 
knows even less as to when and how a horse should be 
shod than the blacksmith. These unfortunate condi- 
tions result in producing a multitude of opinions, — 
some founded on wide observation and hence of value, 
a few on facts; but, in the main, the opinions are 
simply notions founded on a single observation, or, at 
best, but few. 

Under the circumstances, what can be said which 
will assist the young farmer! We hesitate to write 
anything about the shoeing of horses; but we feel 
loath to leave the young men at the mercy of the 
untrained, country blacksmith, or to the loud opinions 
of some city mechanic who, because he has shod the 
horses of the Honorable Mr. Smithkins, imagines that 
he has nothing more to learn. 

(316) 



FEUT BIGHT AT BIBTH 317 

The feet of the horse being a prime factor when 
value and usefulness are considered, it will be well if 
this factor be taken into account when the sire and 
dam are selected and mated; for like produces like, 
under like conditions. Good -footed parents tend to 
produce good -footed offspring. Horses with poor feet 
should never be used as progenitors of their species. 
Supposing that the colt is born right, that he is of 
good inheritance, still his feet should receive attention, 
especially in the spring of the year. Not infrequently 
he is kept in the stable for half of the year, if so, the 
feet wear away but little; if he stands on manure from 
which ammonia is escaping, the growth of the hoofs 
is stimulated, the harder parts of the foot are softened, 
and the softer portion (the frog) develops an abnor- 
mal growth, which not infrequently leads to a diseased 
foot. Even if the colt is allowed to stand on manure 
from which ammonia is not escaping, the hoofs are 
still likely to make too much growth. 

To avoid many, if not all of the ills produced by 
stable confinement, paddocks or large yards should be 
provided where the colts may spend a large part of 
each day. True, the hair will grow longer than it 
would if they were confined in warm stables, but this 
will not be so serious a matter as to have the hoofs 
grow long, soft and out of shape. But, in any case, 
the feet of colts should receive attention and be pared 
off whenever the growth much exceeds the wear. This 
attention is especially necessary in the spring of the 
year, just before they are turned to pasture. 

If, then, the horse has good inheritance and has had 



318 THE HOUSE 

proper attention during colthood, he sliould come to 
his life work witli sound, normal -shaped, hard feet. 
From this on, use and breed should both be considered. 
The draft-horse with his large, comparatively flat foot, 
and the roadster, which sometimes has narrow heels, 
should have quite different foot treatment as to cutting 
away the surplus growth and as to the weight and 
shape of the shoe. When the comparatively low heel 
of the draft -horse and the comparatively high heel of 
the roadster are not too pronounced, both are well 
adapted to the work which these two classes of horses 
are usually called upon to perform. Climate, soil and 
use combined have resulted in producing, as a rule, the 
foot best adapted to all the conditions under which the 
breeds and varieties were formed. When it becomes 
necessary to place a breed under conditions differing 
from those in which the breed grew up, care should be 
taken to select those specimens which have varied, 
however slightly, toward the forms which will be best 
adapted to the changed conditions. Then climate, soil 
and use will soon accentuate the variations, and the 
breed will quickly become adapted to its changed con- 
ditions, instead of breaking down under them. To the 
heavy draft -horse, his large feet are to him what wide 
tires are to the freight wagon, when used on rough 
pavements or on soft ground. So, reasonably large 
feet and reasonably low heels are well suited to a heavy 
draft -horse. The great weight of the draft -horse makes 
it necessary to shoe him so as to bind and sustain the 
quarters of the foot and protect the frog as well. 
Hence, the shoes of the draft-horse should be rather 



i 



CONTRACTED HEELS 319 

wide of web and thick of substance. A shoe with a 
wide web at the heel will protect the frog of the foot, 
and a thick shoe wil-l prevent the foot from spreading 
when called on to sustain heavy weights. If the web 
of the shoe be drawn in slightly at the heel, and 
if the shoe extends well back, the frog is usually safe 
from abrasions. It is only in rare cases that a sound 
foot is so wide and weak at the heel as to require a 
bar -shoe. 

The foot of the light horse, particularly the road- 
ster, is quite different from that of the draft -horse. 
Here the tendency is often toward contracted heels. 
Care should be taken to drive fast steppers with high 
heels slowly when going down hill. Even good shoeing 
cannot overcome the effects of injudicious driving. If 
shoes are allowed to remain on the front feet too long, 
a single day's hard and careless driving on paved roads 
or over a hilly country may lay the foundation for 
contracted feet or "jammed" shoulders, or both. After 
one of these injudicious drives, the horse comes out of 
the stable with less suppleness and less freedom of 
stride than before. If the abuse is continued, the stiff- 
ness of the shoulders and the tenderness of the feet 
increase rapidly; and then appropriate shoeing may 
somewhat alleviate the pain, but it will not cure the 
unsoundness. Manifestly, prevention is better than 
palliation. 

The heels of horses designed for fast work are 
usually naturally bound together firmly and closely; a 
necessity if the horse is to be driven rapidly on hard 
roads. However, the heels of the front feet may be so 



320 THE HOBSE 

high as to result in severe heel concussion, and so 
narrow as to restrict the elastic play of the frog, 
which normally greatly modifies and alleviates the 
concussion of the foot when the horse is in rapid 
motion. If this elastic cushion becomes hard and 
somewhat unresponsive, it will not be long before the 
other members of the foot will suffer. If the trouble 
is not alleviated quickly, the heel contracts and the 
non- sensitive envelope of the foot becomes too small 
for the internal sensitive portions. Horses with high, 
narrow heels should be shod frequently , and a liberal 
portion of the hoof should be pared awa3^ 

The foot may be but slightly affected, in which case 
a spirited horse will not limp when driven. It is not 
an uncommon thing for horsemen to dispose of their 
horses before the unsoundness can be detected by the 
inexperienced purchaser. However, even if the animal 
be but slightly affected, if it be left entirely quiet for a 
little time, it usually thrusts out one front foot ahead 
of the other, thus relieving the foot of some of its 
normal weight. If both feet are affected, the horse 
may ease first one and then the other. 

In this work-a-day world, it matters little to the 
commoner whether a horse trots a mile in three min- 
utes, or three minutes and forty and one -half seconds, 
but the character of the feet does matter. In addition 
to good inherited feet, see to it that the horse is not 
ignorantly driven, and that his feet receive appropriate 
attention in the stable. Having seen to all this, we 
may approach the blacksmith shop with a clear con- 
science. 



FBOG MODIFIES C0NCUSSI02^ 321 

The feet of most horses kept for fast work are not 
pared away enough. The heels are left so high as to 
prevent the frog from coming into contact with the 
ground. If the frog does not perform its legitimate 
purpose of modifying concussion, then it soon becomes 
hard and inelastic. However much it may be necessary 
to reduce the horny portion, the buttress should seldom 
or never be used on the frog of the foot. Never cut 
away the rough and apparentlj- dead exterior of a 
sound foot, for this is as necessary as the semi -sensitive 
parts which are not and should not be exposed. So, the 
first instruction to the blacksmith should be, Do not use 
the buttress on the frog. He may lower the hard envelop- 
ing outer crust of the foot sufficiently to allow the frog 
to come into contact with the ground where the dirt is 
soft enough to allow the shoe, or the greater part of it, 
to sink into the ground. Or the rim of the foot may be 
cut away until the frog just escapes full contact with 
the smooth pavement, after the plates or the light shoes 
have been put on. If the frog is slightly higher than 
the face of the shoe, the inequalities in the pavement 
are enough to bring the frog in contact with the earth 
sufficiently to keep it in a healthy condition. 

The long strides of the roadster result in the heel 
of the foot striking the ground much in the advance of 
the toe. It can readily be seen why the heels of road- 
sters tend to become feverish, and ultimately con- 
tracted. By paring down the heel as much as practica- 
ble without endangering the frog, some of the severe 
heel concussion may be avoided. The student should 
observe carefully how the fore feet of various classes of 

u 



322 THE ROBSE 

horses and of individual horses come in contact with the 
road, as it will help to determine how the feet should be 
pared and shod. The shoes of the horse of quick move- 
ment should be rather light and not so thick or broad of 
web as those of draft -horses. The narrow web exposes 
the frog to wear more than the wide one does. Some 
contact of the frog with the earth is desirable and really 
necessary. If the shoe be somewhat thin, especially near 
the toe -calk, it will permit the heel to expand slightly. 
Sometimes it is well to cut it in two in the middle, and 
make two half plates of it. This method of shoeing 
gives the greatest possible opportunity for expansion 
of the heel. Sometimes the ends of the shoe, after it is 
set, are slightly expanded by the use of a strong pair of 
tongs; but this practice is not to be recommended. It 
is seldom that the sound foot is benefited by the use 
of the bar-shoe. When the feet are abnormal, diseased 
or injured, do not trust your own or the blacksmith's 
opinion, but consult a veterinarian. In fact, all veteri- 
narians should have facilities for shoeing horses that 
have imperfect or diseased feet. 

A third instruction should be. Fit the shoe to the 
foot and not the foot to the shoe. Use the lightest nails 
that will hold the shoe in place a reasonable length 
of time. Some horses should be shod semi-monthly; 
others need not have their shoes removed more than 
once every twenty or thirty days. The character of the 
foot and the work performed should determine the 
length of time a shoe should be worn. And, lastly, give 
strict injunctions not to rasp or polish or beautify the 
outside of the hoof. Nature has provided not only a 



NATUBE'S MODES OF ACTION 323 

most beautiful outer coating for the hoof, but one that 
is nearly impervious to moisture. Destroy this bj^ the 
use of the rasp, and the hoof becomes, first, too wet, 
then too dry and hard, and finally unhealthy. The 
natural oily protective covering of the foot is far 
superior to any concoction of tar, lampblack and linseed 
oil, — even though it be perfumed and mixed according 
to some well -guarded formula. True, the clinches of 
the nails should be smoothed off lightly; otherwise, the 
outside of the hoof should not be rasped or filed, unless 
it is abnormal. If the foot is normal, it is not well 
to shorten the toe and then attempt to give form to 
the foot by using a rasp. Some one has said that the 
Lord put all the water in milk that it would bear. 
Nature's modes of action, undisturbed, produce a good- 
shaped foot; don't try to improve it. If the foot is 
good to start with, has been watched and cared for 
during its growth, has been judiciously used and prop- 
erly protected by iron or steel, still some attention 
should be given it, because the horse, when stand- 
ing in the stable, is placed in unnatural conditions; if 
standing on a hard floor, his fore feet, especially, be- 
come dry and unelastic. Suggestions have already been 
given as to caring for the legs. When this is being 
done, the feet should be examined that the condition 
of the shoes may be known, and, if extraneous dirt 
adheres to the sole of the foot, it should be removed. 
Let it be supposed that the horse has been put to 
severe road-work for several days, and that this is 
followed by little or no driving for an equal period, 
and that the horse is left to stand on a dry plank 



324 THE HOUSE 

floor; these conditions, especially in dry weather in 
mid -summer or in cold weather in winter, result in 
causing the feet to become over-dry, and, in fact, 
slightlj^ contracted, while the horse is losing something 
of his suppleness. In a majority of cases, horses which 
are used only occasionally do not get regular exercise. 
Hence something should be done to modify the un- 
desirable conditions. The floor of the stall should be 
kept slightly damp; sawdust may be spread at the 
front end of the stall, or, better still, use a moderate 
amount of clay slightly dampened, but not so damp 
as to soil the horse; or, best of all, provide box- 
stalls for horses which have intermittent work and 
which alternate between severe work and idleness. 
(See Chapter XXI.) There are several ways of prevent- 
ing the front feet from becoming dry and hard when, 
of necessity, the horse is left to stand on a hard floor 
for periods of time varying from a few days to a few 
weeks. We hesitate to recommend packing the front 
feet with moistened linseed meal, because the tendency 
too often is to leave the packing in the foot too long, 
and not to cleanse the foot thoroughly when it is 
removed. Oil-meal is a highly nitrogenous product, 
and hence becomes offensive and even dangerous to 
the foot if the packing is not removed and the foot 
thoroughly cleansed often. The oil-meal packing is 
most excellent when properly used; the careless man 
would better use clay for packing. If the feet of 
horses used severely on hard roads are examined daily, 
and simple treatment given when necessary, one will 
soon discover if the foot has a tendency to become 



OVERREACHING PALLIATED 325 

feverish and unsound, and then may call in a veteri- 
narian in time for him to be of some use in saving 
the feet of a valuable horse. If the foot is neglected 
until it becomes badly diseased, even the expert can- 
not usually restore it to soundness. All that can be 
expected of him is to palliate the trouble. 

Some horses overreach because of faulty form. 
The front quarters of such horses may have something 
of the draft conformation, v^^hile the hind quarters 
approach the trotting -horse build. In other words, 
the front feet cannot get out of the way of the hind 
ones, because of their hesitating motion, and the 
long, quick reach of the hind feet. If, by a slightly 
modified method of shoeing, the movement of the 
fore feet can be hastened, and that of the hind 
feet retarded by a fraction of a second, the over- 
reach will be obviated. If the soles of the front 
feet be lowered at the toes and the toes slightly 
shortened, and the heels left rather high, the roll 
of the foot and the time of the heel's leaving the 
ground are hastened. On the other hand, if the heel 
of the hind foot be kept rather low, and the toe 
slightly longer and higher than the normal, the time of 
the hind foot leaving the ground will be slightly 
retarded. If, by reason of the lowered, shortened toe, 
the time when the front foot leaves the ground be 
hastened, and that of the hind foot retarded by reason 
of the slightly higher and longer toe, the fraction of a 
second needed to keep the hind foot from coming in 
contact with the front one is secured. The blacksmith 
usually reverses all this, — shoves the front shoe forward 



326 THE HOUSE 

to get it out of the way of the hind one, and places the 
hind shoe back of its normal position, with the hope 
that it will not strike the front one. This method of 
shoeing does not accomplish the desired result. Taut 
lines and encouragement on the part of the driver 
materially assist the horse to overcome the habit of 
overreaching or stumbling. 

Many patent shoes designed to save the front feet of 
horses, especially the frogs of the feet, are on the mar- 
ket. None of them are of much use to sound feet; some 
are a positive injury to the foot, as they cause the frog 
to become tender from non-use and, in time, to become 
diseased. When the foot becomes unsound, a padded 
shoe may palliate pain and prolong the usefulness of 
the animal; but all of these shoes which we have seen 
allow the dirt and filth to get under the protecting pad. 
By reason of the constant wet, dirty and unsanitary 
conditions of the frog and sole of the foot, due to the 
dirt under the pad, and the partial exclusion of the air, 
the foot inside of the hard outside covering tends to 
become soft, tender, bad-smelling and diseased. Patent 
horseshoes can, at best, only palliate the ills of the feet 
due to bad breeding, over -driving, want of care and the 
insane desire to draw the largest possible load or to pass 
everything on the road. The ideal horseshoe is yet to 
be invented. The horse's foot really requires little 
attention, if the horse is bred right and used humanely 
and with judgment. We wonder if time is so precious 
and valuable, after all, as to justify the tearing up and 
down the country of droves of people at breakneck 
speed, in nervous haste to overtake and find rest and 



FEET ADAPTED TO WORK 



327 



recreation, and a locality where there are two -minute 
horses and no Sabbath. 

Fig. 84 represents the exact shape of the foot of a 
four-year-old three-fourths blood Percheron mare, 
weighing 1,450 
pounds. A mat- 
rix of the foot 
was formed of 
clay, and the 
drawing was 
made from it. It 
is a fine foot for 
a draft - horse ; 
the frog is rea- 
sonably high 
and the heel 
only moderately 
wide. The shoe 
measures seven 
inches from toe 
to heel, and is 
six and one-half 
inches wide, and embraces an area of a trifle more than 
thirty-seven square inches. Fig. 85, from a photograph, 
is a front view of both feet. 

Fig. 86 was also drawn from a clay impression. 
This fore foot is most excellent in shape, and represents 
that of a mare sired by a trotting stallion out of a fair- 
sized active farm -mare. The heel is proportionately 
narrower than that shown in Fig. 84, and the foot is 
more rotund and is almost an ideal foot. The shoe is 




Fig. 84. A foot that will last through life 



328 



THE HOESE 



five and one -half inches long and five and one -half 
inches wide, and embraces twenty -five and nine-tenths 
square inches of area. 

The foot of the horse frequently plays an important 
part in tillage. Not infrequently, the horses are driven 




Fig. 85. Two good feet supporting a bro;id breast 

over the field five times in preparing the ground and in 
covering the seed. Watching horses when at work 
plowing land, it was found that the average step was 
four feet three inches, and that most horses, when at 
this kind of work, set the hind feet down a little short 
of the track made by the front feet. Supposing this to 
be the case, and that each foot of the horse at each step 



COMPACTED AND LOOSE GROUND 



329 



covers and presses thirty -one and one -half square 
inches of surface, and that two horses be driven over 
the plowed ground five times, in the fitting and seeding 
of the land, and that 
the implement covers 
an average space of 
five feet at each pas- 
sage, the feet will 
have compressed and 
fined approximatelj' 
five -twelfths of the 
acre of land. How- 
ever, some deduction 
may be made, for it 
is probable that the 
feet will occasionally 
tread in a former 
track. Usuallj^ un- 
plowed ground is too compact and plowed ground too 
loose for the fullest growth of most plants, and the 
compacting and fining of the surface soil by the horse's 
feet is usually beneficial, as far as it goes. Then, too, 
many clods will fall into the depressed tracks made by 
the feet; as the harrow follows, the clods will be drawn 
into the depressions and crushed or covered; if covered, 
they become softened and are then fined by the roller or 
a second harrowing. Sometimes the beneficial effects 
of the compacting by the feet are marked. On the other 
hand, the tramping may be detrimental, as when the 
ground is moist and the crop to be raised does best in a 
loose soil. 




Fig. 86. Durable and beautiful 



\. 

330 THE HORSE 

SHOEING, TO IMPROVE ACTION 

In shoeing horses with a view to improving their 
action, the shoes for the fore feet are made especially 
heav3^ and the toes are rounded off from the under 
side with the intention of enabling the horse to lift 
his feet as quickly and as easily as possible. When 
a horse thus shod feels the additional weight on his 
foot, he makes an increased effort to raise it and, not 
taking into account the greater ease with which the toe 
leaves the ground, he elevates the knee higher than he has 
been accustomed to do. Most horses are greatly benefited 
in height of knee action by heavy shoes with smooth, 
round toes. This plan works very well with some horses, 
possibly the majority, but with others it causes them to 
forge or overreach; because, as the toe begins to leave 
the ground, the toe of the smooth, rounded shoe slips 
backward and the horse forges, — not as in the case above 
referred to, where the hind foot strikes the iron of the 
front foot before the latter can get out of the way, but 
because the fore foot slips backward and in reality forges 
with the iron of the hind foot as it is going to its place. 

Hock action in some horses is benefited by similar 
treatment, and, again, by the very opposite. Some 
horses, while they are improved in the mere act of 
raising or lifting the knees, are thrown out of balance 
by the fore legs moving too fast at the beginning of the 
stride; in which case they either shorten their gait or 
"point" or "dwell" with the action of the foot just 
before it reaches the ground. So much depends upon the 
perfect balancing of the animal, which may be slightly 



HOBSUS THAT ''PADDLE'' 331 

out of balance naturally to begin with, that the question 
of shoeing for the improvement of action must be largely 
one of cut and try, and adaptation to the individual horse. 
Horses that "paddle" or "dish" the fore feet are 
animals that either toe in or do not stand properly on 
their legs, or whose legs are not straight. This winding 
motion is quite as objectionable as pointing or dwelling. 
It is also prevalent in broad-chested horses that usually 
have a rolling action of the bod}^ and, again, in horses 
that for the same reason have the elbow -joint crammed 
at the beginning of the stride and suddenly liberated 
after the foot is well under way. Shoeing such horses, 
heavy on the inside of the foot and especially toward 
the heel, is in some cases very beneficial; in others, 
the additional weight seems to aggravate the cause. As 
a rule, it may be said that action follows weight; that 
is to say, if a horse follows too closely behind, so that 
he interferes, the weight on the outside of the shoe will 
make him step wider apart. If he travels too wide, 
weighted shoes on the inside would make him travel 
closer. This is the principle, but, like many other 
principles, it has many exceptions. Sometimes a 
hind shoe particularly long on the outside answers 
the purpose, but even then it may be owing more 
to the additional weight of the shoe than to the addi- 
tional length. This subject has been treated some- 
what in detail, with a view of calling attention to 
these matters and to enable the novice to solve the 
puzzling problem by his own study and observations. 
It may be said that nearly all the rules for shoeing, 
with the view of correcting faults of conformation and 



332 



THE HORSE 



of improving action, are consistent only in their unre- 
liability. This is because horses dish, point, interfere 
and forge from many different causes; hence there are 
many men of many minds. When an artist of the 
anvil succeeds in making a horse stop interfering or 
forging, he thinks he has discovered the secret and 
will forever after shoe every horse identically the same 
for the same defect. The trouble is in the want of abil- 
ity to discern the true causes which produce the defect. 




Gypsy Queen, a good saddler 



i 



CHAPTER XXI 

STABLES, SANITATION AND PADDOCKS 

Each horse should be prrvided in the stable with at 
least two cubic feet of air-space for each pound of live 
weight. Cattle require about one-half as much air-space 
per unit of live weight. This difference arises in part 
from the fact that both the solid and the liquid voidings 
of horses begin to ferment much quicker than do those 
of cattle. Horse manure is hot and dry; cow manure, 
cold and wet. Horses are put to exhaustive work and 
require a full supply of oxygen in the stables, that the 
depleted energy may be quickly replenished. 

High ceilings save floor space and are more satisfac- 
tory than low ones, as they give opportunity for light- 
ing and ventilating. The horses' heads should be turned 
away from the light, and hence from the windows. 
Side lights are not so objectionable as are those placed 
in front of the horse. All windows should be arranged 
for lowering the top sash, as well as for raising the 
bottom one. Windows should be numerous and tall, if 
the ceiling permits; if it does not, sash hung near 
the middle may be made to serve for both light and 
ventilation. Fig. 87. The windows maj^ be furnished 
with screens; but, if they are curtained and the light 
in the stable be reduced in the middle of the day, the 
flies will be largely excluded. 

(333) 



334 



THE EC BSE 



It is seldom that tuo many windows are placed in the 
stable. All the light that is practicable to introduce will 
be needed morning and evening in cloudy weather 
and during the short days of winter. It is inex- 
pensive to exclude some of the light in midsummer. 
Many windows assist in securing ventilation. True, 
windows increase the temperature in the daytime 
and serve to radiate heat 
at night. The worst possi- 
ble position for a window 
in a stable is immediately^ 
in front of and on a level 
with or above that of the 
horse's head. If such win- 
dows be even partially 
opened, dangerous drafts 
of air strike the horses on 
their most vulnerable points 
— heads and eyes. I have 
known two high - priced 
spans of coachers to be 
seriously injured by drafts 
from such window^s. When 
the stables were rearranged 
and the horses placed with ^m 87. 

their heads away from the ^ swing window for a stable 
outside wall and light, the trouble ceased. Most sizable 
stables are arranged with a wide walk-wa}^ between 
two rows of horses, the two feed alleys being placed on 
the outside. This arrangement is objectionable for sev- 
eral reasons. First, it places the horses' heads toward 



\ 




LIGHTING AND ARRANGEMENT 335 

the light; then it masses all the voidings of the animals 
in the center of the building where good ventilation 
along the floor cannot be easilj' secured. When the 
arrangement is as shown, in Fig. 88, the floors may be 
ventilated from an outside opening, as previously de- 
scribed. The outside walls furnish room for the harness, 
and at the point where they will dry more quickly than 
in any other part of the stable, unless a separate well- 
ventilated harness -room be provided. Where but few 
horses are kept, the big barn floor is frequently used for 
the feed -hall. This results in placing the horses with 
their heads away from the light. Where the stables are 
thus arranged, they are likely to be over- ventilated. To 
overcome this, flap doors are hung at the front of the 
mangers, which may be closed at night in cold weather. 
The panes in barn and stable windows should be small; 
eight by ten- is a suitable size. Small window-panes are 
less likely to be broken than large ones, since the 
numerous bars of the sash serve as fenders. Then, too, 
small panes are more cheaply replaced than large ones. 
Where there are several colts on the farm, a cheap 
shelter should be constructed into which the colts may 
retire from the hot sun when the flies become trouble- 
some. There should be doors in each end which may be 
left open to secure a draft of air. The door opening 
may be covered with large pieces of coarse material. 
The animals soon learn to pass into the structure and, 
in doing so, brush off the flies. Inside, it is dark, as no 
windows are provided, and the colts are comfortable 
and are not stamping the grass. In the cool of the 
evening, they go out to graze. Sometimes the structure 



336 



THE ffOBSHJ 



is made tall enough to store hay in the loft, in which 
case the colts are wintered in the building, being fed 
but once a day. Mr. A. C. Chase, of Syracuse, N. Y., 
has found this method of rearing Morgan colts most 
satisfactor3\ 

VENTILATION 

Horse stables should be kept cooler in winter than 
cow stables. The modern stable, like the modern house, 






I 



Fig. 88. An ideal arrangement 

is usually kept much too warm in winter. It is easier to 
ventilate horse stables than cow stables, since, if the 
introduction of an abundance of fresh air does lower 
the temperature to or even below the freezing point at 
times, no harm is done; provided, however, the air is 
admitted at many small openings. (See Blankets, Chapter 
XV.) Large and few openings tend to produce strong 



CONSTRUCTION OF VA'NTILATOB 



337 



and dangerous drafts. If the stable is planned simi- 
lar to the diagram, Fig. 88, the horizontal ventilating- 
tube arrangement may be adopted as follows: Place a 
box of about ten inches by one foot six inches flatwise 
against the ceiling and over the hallwaj^ in front of the 
horses. The lower side of the box and about 
one -half of the two sides should be provided 
with openings, either by means of auger holes 
or b}^ placing slats lengthwise one-half inch 
apart. Valves at the external openings serve 



Straw-mow over stable 




Fjg 



A straw chute and ventilator combined 



to prevent too rapid egress of air out of the building, in 
wind}% cold weather. The straw chute may also be used 
in part as a ventilator. Fig. 89. 

The walls of the stable should not be too tight, or 
the moisture of the dampish air in the stable will con- 
dense on the inside walls. A damp stable is very objec- 
tionable. If not enough fresh air enters the stables 



338 THE HOBSE 

throug^h the many minute cracks of the outside wall, 
the window -sashes may be raised and lowered to suit 
the temperature and other conditions. Horses kept in 
cool stables are healthier, more vigorous and less likely 
to suffer from contagious and other diseases than are 
those kept in overheated stables. However, if they are 
not blanketed, their hair will not be so smooth, short 
and soft as it would be if they were kept in warm 
stables, — that is, those where the temperature seldom 
falls below 40° Fahr., and is usually between 50° and 
75° Fahr.* (See Blankets, Chap. XV.) 

The decomposition of the excrements, especially the 
urine which soaks into the floor, goes on more slowly 
in cold than in warm stables; hence the air in cool 
stables is likely to be purer and better than in warm 
ones. Most horses are subjected to many vicissitudes 
of weather while at work; therefore their vigor should 
not be reduced, nor should their skins be made over- 
sensitive, by being placed in stables where the tempera- 
ture is so high as to weaken appetite and relax the 
system. (See Grooming, Chap. XV.) 

The most unhealthy stables I have ever inspected 
were in northern New York. They were boarded inside 
and out with first-class matched pine lumber. The 
windows were few and closely fitted. In the winter, 
they swelled so tight, as did also the doors, that they 
could neither be opened nor closed readily. The box- 
stalls were nearly air-tight. Their inner surfaces were 
saturated with condensed moisture, and even large 
drops of water adhered to or dropped from the ceiling. 
In two of these barns, the ground feed was spoiling on 



I 



AVOID DAMPNESS 339 

the second floor, because of the condensed moisture and 
the breath of the animals in the stable. One of these 
barns was fitted with elaborate, expensive and highly 
recommended metal ventilating appliances. In both of 
these barns, icicles more than a foot long depended in 
many places from the rafters and roof -boards in winter. 
We have gone from the one extreme of sieve -like 
boarding and open floors to the other — air tight boxes. 
A happy medium should be adopted. 

Unmatched, surfaced, vertical, outside boarding, 
properly battened, supplemented in cold climates with 
inside, unmatched but jointed covering, will be ample 
protection from the cold and wind, except, perhaps, 
in extremely exposed localities. If added protection 
is needed, the space between the two boardings, which 
may be about one foot apart, may be filled with cut 
straw or chaif. A dry w^all, through which the air 
passes slowly and upon which little or no moisture will 
condense, is secured, and a much more satisfactory one 
than can be constructed with matched lumber and 
building-paper. In rare cases, even with such a wall, 
the dampness in the stable, in extreme cold weather 
when doors and windows are closed, may be too great. 
If so, cut several small openings near the floor and pro- 
vide them with fine wire -screen covers and a drop -lid 
for closing them when they admit too much air, and 
place one or more ventilating tubes at right angles to the 
one already described above. In any case, cold air is bet- 
ter than over -moist air. The air can now be directed 
into and out of the stable without creating drafts or 
depositing moisture. The simplest and most direct waj' 



340 THE HOUSE 

of managing air in stable or house is usually the most 
satisfactory; since the air is likely to be acted upon 
by pressure and counter -pressure currents, and contrac- 
tion and expansion, the best planned complex system too 
often utterly fails. Warm air wll carry more moisture 
than cold air. If, then, cold, dryish air be introduced 
into the stable near the floor, or mid- way between floor 
and ceiling, and is then warmed by the heat of the ani- 
mals, it will take up the moisture as thrown off by 
respiration, and, as the air becomes warmer, it will 
become lighter and rise where it will find easy egress 
out of the stable, either at one end or one side, through 
the perforated box at the ceiling. At which point it 
escapes will depend upon the pressure or the direction 
of the wind. Moist and vitiated air, like house sewage, 
should be removed by the straightest, quickest, simplest 
and most direct route. 

MANURES 

A good and convenient arrangement, though not by 
any means the best, is to provide a covered yard 
beneath the stable, into which the excrements may be 
thrown for temporary storage. In such an arrangement, 
the danger is that the basement story will be built 
largely under ground and be too low. If so, it cannot 
be suitably lighted and ventilated. If properly con- 
structed, and the floor above is made tight and the 
manure is cared for as it should be, such arrangement 
will be fairly satisfactory. If a lower story (not a 
cellar) is used for the temporary storage of the manures 



ABSORBENTS AND DEODOBIZEBS 



341 



and for temporary shelter for farm implements in the 
summer, care must be taken to prevent the manure 
from heating. Horse excrements, if unmixed with 
those of the cows, should be thoroughly wet from time 
to time and, if convenient, solidified by the tramping of 
animals. Some salt may be used on the manure, a 
quart for each load. This will retard heating aud dis- 




FiG. 90. There are better ways than this 

courage the flies from breeding in the manure. Dry 
earth, or better gypsum, should be sprinkled daily on 
the floors of the stables where they are damp. One 
quart of fine dry earth, or half that much of gypsum will 
be sufiicient for each stall. By such treatment, sanita- 
tion will be promoted and the manures be conserved. 
Gypsum is better than dry earth in the stables, since 
it acts not only as an absorbent and disinfectant, but, 
when the manure is applied to the land, the gypsum 



342 THE EORSE 

helps to make the potash in the soil available. But no 
stable treatment will conserve manures when thrown out 
under the eaves. Fig. 90 shows the worst possible 
disposition that can be made of a valuable product 
from the stable. The manure from the horse stable, 
in any case, should be carefully husbanded, since the 
amount, including bedding, usually reaches six to eight 
tons per horse per year. The value per day of the excre- 
ments ranges from three to five cents and from ten to 
fifteen dollars per year, per horse, provided the horses 
are in the stables the greater part of the time. (See 
"Fertility of the Land.") If means justify, a lean-to or 
a separate small building may be constructed for tem- 
porary storage of manures; in which case they may 
have to be transported daily to the storage building. 
Swine or cattle may, in some cases, be allowed to roam 
over the manure for a portion of each day in the winter 
with benefit to the manure and to the animals. 

FLOORS, STALLS AND MANGERS 

Sometimes horses may be placed on the second floor 
above a covered yard, or above other animals. In any 
case, the stable floor should be water-tight. Wooden 
floors, all things considered, are usuallj^ the best; but 
conditions may be such as to justify the use of other 
materials. Brick, cement and stone floors are somewhat 
objectionable for the following reasons, — they are hard 
for the horses to stand upon, are slippery, and, if bed- 
ding is not abundant, are damp, and they absorb the 
heat of the horse when it is lying down. A good, tight 
stable floor may be made as follows (Fig. 91) : 



FLOOB CONSTRUCTION 



343 



Lay an unmatched rough inch floor, C; upon this 
place strong tarred building paper, B, with joints well 
lapped. Saw and prepare the two -inch planks which 
are to form the floor, A. For every four hundred 
square feet of floor, procure one barrel of Trinidad 




Fig. 91. Making a barn floor 

asphalt and three gallons of gas -tar. A large iron 
kettle may be used for heating and mixing the material, 
which should be in proportion of about one to ten. 
With an axe remove the barrel, and chop off and 
place in the kettle pieces of asphalt until it is not much 
more than one -half full, then add the due proportion 
of gas -tar. The kettle should be placed in a rude arch 
at a little distance from the building. By means of 
a slow fire, heat the material. If by chance the material 
should take fire invert the kettle. When all is ready, dip 
the hot mixture into a galvanized iron pail and pour it 
in a small stream on the paper, spreading it to the 
width of the plank intended to be laid, by means of a 
shingle or paddle. Lay the plank in the hot material, 
being careful that when it is spiked down the hot 
asphalt does not fly into the face. Then proceed to 



344 THE HOBSE 

lay other planks in like manner. Finally pour some of 
the material into the cracks, if there should be any.^ 

Should the floor become worn in time and need 
repairing, even up the surface by spreading thin cement 
mortar upon it, and upon this lay a second plank floor. 
The cement mortar will assist in making the floor water- 
tight and in preventing dry rot. Barn floors which 
have become worn from driving over them may be 
treated in like manner. 

When the second floor is laid on the first (when it 
becomes worn), a portion of the stall may be provided 
with a removable grating, which will measurably pre- 
vent the horse from becoming soiled. This is objection- 
able in some respects, because the horse must be 
removed and the grating lifted if the stable is made 
clean. After having tried several methods, and ob- 
served many, for caring for and removing the liquid 
voidings, I know of none better than to absorb 
them by use of chaff or straw bedding of various kinds 
placed just ahead of the cleat shown in Fig. 89. The 
planks of the floor of the stall should be laid at right 
angles to those of the rear walk- way and two inches 
higher, their rear ends lapping upon the plank walk 
two to four inches. The planks upon which the animals 
stand are not infrequently laid with a fall from front 
to rear of two to three inches. Such a floor is cruel to 
the horse and does not promote cleanliness. One inch 
fall in six feet is sufficient. Horses when worked hard, 
if left free in the field, seek to place the heels of their 
feet, especially their front ones, higher than their toes 

1 A floor laid as described, eighteen years ago, is still in good repair. 



FEEDING ARRANGEMENTS 345 

and their front parts lower than their hind parts. By 
so doing they rest the back tendons and the back side 
of their legs, the parts which are subjected to the 
greatest strain when at work; hence a floor which has 
a marked rearward fall is objectionable. Sizable farm- 
horses should have stalls ranging from five to six 
feet wide, since the stables are cleaned, horses groomed 
and harnessed without moving them from their stalls. 

The box for feeding grain should be large, made of 
hard wood with level, broad bottom. The edges of the 
box and the strong bars placed in front and at the rear 
of the feed -bunk would be better covered wdth band- 
iron. That part of the manger designed for hay is 
usually too large, that for receiving the grain too 
small. Horses are inclined to eat their grain too fast. 
A large flat-bottomed grain -box tends to make them 
eat slowly, and hence to insalivate their food. Horses 
are usually fed too much hay. If the manger is large, 
it is difficult to prevent the attendant from over -feeding, 
unless he is required to weigh each horse's hay ration, 
a thing usually impracticable. 

The hay should not be thrown from an upper story 
directly into the manger, no matter what kind it is, 
neither should it be thrown direct from the mow in 
front of the horse, but into a small room separated by 
a door from the stable proper. This room should be 
large enough to permit of the hay being shaken up and 
sprinkled with water when occasion requires. Neither 
should the bedding be thrown down in such a manner 
as to cover the harness and horses with dust. 

Fig. 89 shows a straw chute constructed on the 



346 THE HOUSE 

outside of the stable but opening into the straw -mow 
above and into the stable below. The door, shown by 
dotted line, is hung by means of weights, moves per- 
pendicularly, and is closed when the bedding is being 
thrown into the chute and opened when the bedding is 
being removed to the several stalls. The chute may 
also be used as a ventilator. 

PADDOCKS 

A few paddocks, or better, small fields, should be 
provided near the barn for the dams and foals and 
other horses on occasion. They should be provided in 
any case if live stock is being raised. The enclosure 
should be large enough to allow of some pasturage. 
Paddocks are usually so small that the grass is 
destroyed by the tramping of the animals. Not only 
will such small fields serve to separate the dam and 
foal from other livestock, but they may be made the 
means of advertising the fact that good animals are 
being reared, provided they are suitably located. They 
should, where possible, be in sight of the front veranda 
and abut on the public highway, that the passer-by 
may linger to see and be persuaded to purchase. Such 
fields and the colts are to the breeder what plate -glass 
windows and their display are to the merchant. The 
merchant never puts his finest goods in the back end 
of the store, or where they cannot be seen readily. 
Increase the productivity of the large fields, and then 
these small fields w^ll not be missed when laid down in 
permanent pastures and used for displaying the best 
animals. 



CHAPTER XXII 



LINE OF DRAFT, WEIGHT OF HORSES AND WAGO^ 

TIRES 

It is not enough to have good horses well nourished; 
their powers should be directed along most efficient 
lines. Figure 92 illustrates how one span may lift 
and roll out of its resting place a stone so large that 
it may require three spans of animals to draw it when 
placed on a stone -boat. However, oxen are better 
than horses for this purpose. If it is desired to haul a 
heavy log for a short distance, the chain is attached at 
the lowest point, or under the side of the log. In some 
of the old English 
works on plowing 
(Fig. 98), the line 
of draft is repre- 
sented as starting at 
the center of resist- 
ance, thence running -•'^M"^^ 
in a straight line 
through the device 
at the end of the 
beam, and ending 
where the traces are attached to the hames. The Ameri- 
can plowman uses short traces, which results in bend- 
ing the line of draft upwards, thus diminishing the 

(347) 




Fig. 92. Energy efficiently directed. 



348 



THE HORSE 




friction of the sole 
of the plow. (Fig. 
94.) The bent line 
of draft tends, of 
course, to raise the 
plow out of the 
ground, but this is 
overcome by giving 
the point of the 
plow a little more 
pitch. It is often 
observed by farm- 
ers that tall horses 
appear to plow with 
less effort than low 
ones. This is no 
doubt a fact, since 
the line of draft is 
bent more by the 
tall horses than by 
the low ones. 
Horsemen all know 
that teams are 
most efficient in 
moving heavy loads 
when hitched close 
to them. The rea- 
sons for this may 
be found in the 
greater bend of the 
line of draft and in 



TRACTION AND FRICTION 



349 



the greater traction power 
of the animals. In other 
words, the closer the horses 
are to their load, the more 
of the weight of the load is 
placed on the horse. Hia 
shoulders not being at right 
angles to the direction 
which the load is to take, 
a part of the load is thrown 
upon the body of the horse. 
This relieves some of the 
friction of the load and 
practically gives more 
weight to the horse, and 
this, in turn, tends to hold 
him to the ground and in- 
creases his traction power. 
In early days, farm prod- 
ucts and merchandise were 
transported largely by 
teams of four or more 
horses. The smallest horse 
was put on the nigh (left- 
hand) side of the pole 
(tongue). The pole horses 
were not called on to do 
their full share of the work 
where the roads were good, 
but were kept in part as a 
reserve. When a supreme 




350 THE HOUSE 

effort had to be made, the driver leaped on to the little 
horse, when, for a short time, by reason of his added 
weight, he was nearly equal in draft power to the larger 
horse. 

Low -wheeled wagons are becoming somewhat com- 
mon on the farm; they should become more common, 
although they run harder, other things being equal, 
than wagons with wheels of standard size. However, 
the length of haul on the farm is so short that the 
increase of draft due to the small wheels may be 
ignored, especially since human physical energy is far 
more expensive than horse energy. It is not economical 
to lift heavy material unnecessarily high for the pur- 
pose of easing the horses, or for the fun of throwing 
the material down again. Farm -wagons should have, 
as a rule, wide tires, although, under some circum- 
stances, they increase the draft over narrow -tired ones 
seriously. Wagons with wide tires run easier on hard 
pavements, be they smooth, as of brick or asphalt, or 
roughish, as when constructed of stone. But on dirt 
roads covered with two or three inches of stiff mud, 
the wide -tired wagon is a "horse -killer," or so pro- 
nounced to be by good teamsters. The use of wide- 
tired wagons tends to prolong the life of the good 
road; but this is no reason why wide -tired wagons 
should be used at the expense of horse-flesh to improve 
dirt roads which become "villainous" every spring and 
fall. Narrow tires push away and cut through the mud 
and find a hard bottom. Wide tires push down and 
climb over the mud, and by so doing the draft is 
increased. 



HIGH ANI} LOW ATTACHMENT 351 

When horses are used for draft purposes on pave- 
ments, their weight becomes a factor of prime impor- 
tance. Manifestly, it is not convenient in great cities 
(especially American cities) to hitch several horses to 
one wagon. Fortunately, most of our streets are wide 
enough to permit of two being driven abreast, and, 
when so driven, they are most efficient in backing a 
load. On pavements, horses get but a precarious foothold 
for pulling. On moderately soft ground, they are able, 
by placing the feet well back, to bring the soles of the 
feet at an angle of fifteen to twenty degrees from the 
horizontal, or the direction of the movement of the load. 
On the smooth pavements, no such advantage can be 
taken, and here efficiency of draft depends largely on 
the weight of the horse. If, then, friction on the 
pavement becomes so important, can the line of draft 
be so adjusted as to increase it? It is evident that if 
the point of attachment to the load be low, the friction 
of the feet of the horse on the pavement will be 
increased; if the point of attachment be high, it will 
be diminished. Therefore the doubletrees should be 
placed in a supporting iron under the tongue of the 
wagon, especially if the wagon has low front wheels 
and is used for heavy traffic. The farther back the 
doubletrees are placed, and the shorter the traces, 
the more pronounced will be the angle of draft and 
the greater the traction power. 

A horse weighing 1,500 pounds when tested, by 
placing the attachment to the load but six inches from 
the ground, was able to pull 2,310 pounds as measured 
by dynamometer. When he was attached to the load at 



352 THE HORSE 

the height of two feet, he was able to pull 1,980 pounds. 
When attached at a height of three feet, he was able 
to pull 1,732 pounds. 

When horses are attached to light vehicles where 
light draft, rapid movement, safety and beauty are 
desired, the point of attachment to the vehicle should 
be high. Horses used for light work are often "frisky," 
and they may get over the traces if they are hitched 
low. 

When driving a single horse to a light sleigh, he 
should be placed immediatelj^ in front of it, if he is to 
be driven only in the city. In the country, the horse 
is attached in front of the right-hand runner, that he 
may travel in the right-hand beaten track. In the 
United States, the law directs that, when teams meet, 
they shall turn to the right; in most European coun- 
tries, teams meeting turn to the left, which is far safer 
and more convenient. The awkward American custom 
is due without doubt to the almost universal use of 
oxen in the pioneer days. Since oxen are driven by 
walking on the left side of them, it is most convenient 
to turn to the right. The driver of horses sits on the 
right; logically, he should turn to the left. 

We now come to another method of attaching 
horses to two -wheeled vehicles, which first became 
common in London and later, happily, was introduced 
into some of our American cities. The hansom -cab is a 
light two -wheeled covered carriage with the driver's 
seat elevated behind, the reins being passed over the 
top. It is so balanced on the axle that, when loaded 
with one or two passengers and driver, the tendency 



DRAFT LIGHT, ATTACHMENT HIGH 



353 



is for the shafts (thills) to rise. This teiidencj' is pre- 
vented by a wide, padded belly-band. This method of 
attachment practically transfers a part of the weight 
of the front end of the horse to the axle, and this 
results in great gain, as it relieves some of the con- 
cussion of the horse's front feet on the pavement. 
Since the draft of the load is light, the horse can well 
spare some of this weight, and this may result in pre- 
serving the soundness of the front feet. Many times, 
horses with front feet slightly affected are used in 
hansoms; because there is opportunity to relieve some 
of the pain due to slight unsoundness. 




Fig. 95. Saves front feet of horse. 



APPENDIX I 

THE BREEDING IN CANADA OF HORSES FOB 
ARMY USE 

By the kindness of J. G. Rutherford, Chief Veterinary- 
Inspector 

While the supply of horses suitable for military use has 
always, even in times of peace, been a serious question, the 
experience of our South African troubles has given it an impor- 
tance altogether new and somewhat startling. It has now been 
clearly shown that troops under modern conditions of warfare 
must be able to move rapidly from place to place, and that the 
mounted soldier has thus an immense advantage over the less 
mobile infantry man. 

This development has led to the purchase by the British Gov- 
ernment, during the present campaign, of a very much larger 
number of horses than would otherwise have been required. Nor 
has the lesson been learned by Britain alone; all military nations 
have been closely watching the operations in South Africa, and 
there is no room for doubt that the general demand for horses 
suitable for army purposes will be much greater in the future 
than in the past. Of the horses purchased for use in Africa 
the Dominion has by no means furnished her fair share, although, 
in addition to those taken by our own contingents, a considerable 
number have been picked up in Eastern Canada by Lt.-Col. Dent, 
of the Remount Department of the British Army. It is not, how- 
ever, an easy matter at present to obtain in this country any large 
number of horses altogether suitable for army use. No encourage- 
ment to produce them has, until very recently, been shown to 
breeders, and, there being no very active home demand for any 
but the very best of the sorts now asked for, they have not been 
bred to anything like the extent of which the country is capable. 

(354) 



APPENDIX I 355 

After the visit of Colonel Ravenhill in 1887, the western ranchers, 
in expectation of a market, went to much trouble and expense in 
securing and importing suitable foundation stock, and as a result 
were successful in producing many first-class cavalry -horses. As, 
however, beyond a limited number taken by the Northwest 
Mounted Police and a few by foreign buyers, there was no sale 
for them as such, the breeders have largely turned their attention 
to other and, under the circumstances, more profitable lines of 
stock. 

The natural conditions in Canada are, it need hardly be said, 
most favorable for the production of the animals wanted, while 
in the event of serious international disturbance Canadian horses 
would always be available for Imperial use, while it might be 
impossible to procure them in foreign countries. Again, through 
the medium of our great trans-continental railway they could be 
shipped from either Atlantic or Pacific ports to any part of the 
world where they might be required. 

In view of the strong probability that the demand hitherto 
lacking will in the future be such as to warrant the breeding in 
fair numbers of the horses needed for military use, a brief 
description of those now being sought for and purchased by the 
agents of the British war office, and a few hints as to how they 
may be produced, will not be out of place. 

They are of three fairly distinct types as required for artillery, 
cavalry and mounted infantry. 

At the Canadian horse-show held in Toronto in April, 1900, 
the Dominion Government gave special prizes for each of these 
classes, and as Lt.-Col. Dent, the Imperial remount of&cer 
detailed to purchase in Canada, was one of the judges, thus 
making the selections authoritative, a description of each first 
prize animal, together with its measurements, will be appended 
to the general list of requirements in all three divisions. 

THE ARTILLERY -HORSE 

The artillery-horse asked for by the army buyers is really a 
smart, active van- or express-horse on short legs, with plenty of 
bone and substance and enough quality to ensure staying power 



356 THE HORSE 

in fairly fast work. He should stand from fifteen and two -tenths 
to sixteen hands, weigh not less than 1,300 pounds, and measure at 
least eight inches below the knee and seventy-two inches in girth. 
Considerable variation in type is permissible, the work of the 
horse artillery demanding greater speed and therefore more warm 
blood than are necessary for ordinary field artillery, while in all 
batteries properly horsed, the lead and center pairs are slightly 
taller and more rangy than the wheelers, the latter requiring 
greater strength and substance. The first prize entry at Toronto 
last spring was of the lighter sort, being, in fact, the pure-bred 
hackney mare 'Cassandra.' She stood 16 hands, weighed l,32i5 
pounds and girthed 76 inches. She measured 8/^ inches below 
the knee and 20/^ inches round the arm ; from crest to withers 36 
inches, withers to croup 29 inches, croup to tail, an important 
point in all military horses, 19 inches. Although in this particu- 
lar instance the prize went to a hackney, it does not, by any 
means, follow that gun -horses should be either wholly or partly 
of that breed. They may be obtained by the judicious use of the 
thoroughbred horse on mares of size, substance and action, or by 
stinting good half-bred or strong roadster mares to a biggish 
hackney or breedy coach sire. So long as they show suflficient 
quality to ensure activity and endurance, and at the same time 
meet the requirements as to size and substance, the question of 
pedigree is of secondary importance. 

THE CAVALRY -HORSE 

The cavalry-horse is of a somewhat different type, and one at 
present too rare in Canada, owing to the preference shown by 
many light horse breeders for the American trotting sire, an ani- 
mal possessing but few of the qualities and characteristics of the 
riding horse. 

Colonel Ravenhill^ in his report, says: — "A malformation in the 
Canadian horses which might advantageously be brought to the 
notice of breeders is that their quarters are short and very droop- 
ing, a serious defect in a military horse. Indeed, we had to reject 
as unsuitable a considerable proportion on this account; this is 



1 



APPENDIX I 357 

not only a great dissiglit, but where a mounted soldier has to 
carry a kit on his horse's back it amounts to an insuperable 
objection; it has arisen from the too extensive use of the Ameri- 
can trotter for stud purposes, this defect being very apparent in 
that horse. This is an additional reason for the more continuous 
introduction of the English thoroughbred, or such horses as are 
very straight in their backs and quarters, with tail set high." 

To get good cavalry-horses the thoroughbred sire is almost 
indispensable, as in no other way can the lengthy rein, sloping 
shoulder, deep chest, strong loin and long quarter, so necessary in 
this class, be obtained with auy certainty or regularity. Freedom 
of movement is essential, but high action and great trotting speed 
are neither required nor wanted. Horses of this class should 
stand not less than 15.1 nor more than 15.3, and should measure 
at least 8 inches below the knee and 70 inches in girth. 

The first prize at Toronto was taken by a brown gelding named 
"General," said to be by a thoroughbred horse. He was a remark- 
able well-proportioned weight carrier of considerable length and 
great substance. His measurements were as follows: Height 
15.3, cannon bone 8 inches, arm 21 inches, crest to withers 37 
inches, withers to croup 33 inches, croup to tail 15 inches, girth 
74 inches. 

Horses of this stamp can best be procured by the use of 
selected thoroughbred sires on strong half-bred ma;es, on the 
better class of roadster mares, or on mares from hackney or coach 
sii es, provided they show some blood and quality. On mares hav- 
ing a preponderance of warm blood or those showing any inclina- 
tion to weediness, a good hackney horse might be advantageously 
used. 

THE MOUNTED INFANTRY -HORSE 

The mounted infantry-horse, for which such an unprecedented 
demand has recently arisen, and which is likely to be even more 
sought after if present war conditions continue to prevail, is a 
smaller and cheaper animal than either of those already described. 
He is, in fact, a cob, a strong pony on short legs, with as much 
quality as can consistently be looked for in conjunction with the 



358 THE HOBSE 



substance required to carry an armed man. He must have a fair 
shoulder and a good back, be deep through the heart and stand 
squarely on good legs well furnished with bone. In height he may 
be from 14.1 to 15.1, but 14.3 is the favorite standard with 
Lt.-Col. Dent. Strength is the great desideratum, but a reason- 
able amount of activity is indispensable. 

The little horse " Hero " which took first prize in Toronto, stood 
15.1, measured 1% inches below the knee and 19% around the 
arm; from crest to withers he was 34 inches, withers to croup 27 
inches, croup to tail 15 inches. He girthed 73 inches and, as the 
measurements show, was an excellent type of the weight-carrying 
cob. Such horses can be obtained by a stout thoroughbred sire 
from French Canadian or other strong pony mares, or by the 
judicious use of the hackney horse on the smaller roadsters and 
on those little mares too common in Canada, resulting from the 
ill-advised use of the racing or rather sprinting type of thorough- 
bred on light mares of trotting blood or other mixed breeding. 



GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 

In time of peace no horses are bought at less than four nor 
more than seven years old. 

As regards color, bays, browns, chestnuts and blacks are 
preferred ; a few grays are required for special corps, but odd- 
colored horses are not wanted. 

No unsound or seriously blemished horse will be taken; the 
veterinary examination is fairly strict but is also strictly fair. 
Undocked horses are preferred, and no horse with a very short 
docked tail will be taken. 

In time of war, however, when the demand, as a rule, exceeds 
the available supply, purchasing officers overlook many minor 
defects, provided the animals offered are sound and serviceable, 
while conforming generally to the requirements of the service. 



APPENDIX I 359 

ADVICE TO BREEDERS 

Breeders ou the western ranges will, no doubt, find it profit- 
able from this time forward, to devote considerable attention to 
the production of horses especially adapted for military use. 

In the other portions of the Dominion the supply of such 
horses can be enormously increased with but little extra effort or 
expense on the part of the breeder. 

Immense numbers of light horses and ponies are annually bred 
in Canada of which many when grown are, owing to their non- 
descript character, of but little value. If the breeders of these 
animals would send their lighter mares to pure-bred stallions, of 
the British breeds, intelligently selected with a view to the pro- 
duction of a definite type of military horse, a vast improvement in 
our clean -legged stock would speedily manifest itself. 

High prices would then, as now, be easily obtainable for really 
superior animals; most of the others would find ready sale for 
army use as well as for other purposes, while the misfits and object 
lessons would be less numerous and, except by comparison, not 
less valuable, than they are at present. 

[The admirable instructions for breeding army horses in Canada, 
as set forth in the previous pages, are applicable when applied to 
breeding the same class of horses in the United States.] — Author. 

Note. — With horsemen, the figures 15.1, 15.3 are read fifteen 
hands, one inch, and fifteen hands, three inches. See pp. 356, 
857. 



APPENDIX II 

COMPUTING RATIONS FOB FARM ANIMALS 

Prepared by John L. Stone, Assistant Professor of Agronomy, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

For more than a third of a century, the subject of feeding to 
farm animals a "balanced ration," or one that conforms quite 
closely to a "standard" that has been fixed by carefully conducted 
experiments with the kind of animal for which it is recommended, 
has been before American stock feeders. The general utility of 
feeding standards is almost universally admitted by those who 
have given the matter study, and the number of feeders who are 
endeavoring to conform their practices to the standards is con- 
tinually increasing. 

The tables of feeding stuffs and the methods of using them 
have been much simplified of late years, but judging by the large 
number of requests from farmers, received by the agricultural 
papers and the Experiment Stations, for formulas of balanced 
rations, adapted to the needs of the inquirers, the subject is still too 
complicated, or the labor involved too great, to be readily accom- 
plished by the ordinary farmer. It is with a view of further 
simplifying the computation of rations and bringing it within 
the range of every feeder that the accompanying tables have been 
prepared. The effort has been to carry the computations as near 
to completion as possible, so that the user will simply need to 
take from the table the figures corresponding to the kinds and 
amounts of the feeds used in the proposed ration and add them 
together, to be able to compare it with the standard. The only 
advantage claimed for this publication is that, by the arrangement 
of the tables and by the computations made, the labor of formu- 
lating rations is very materially reduced, and it is hoped that 
many who have not heretofore attempted this work for themselves 
will be encouraged to do so. 

(360) 



APPENDIX II 361 

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

The various substances found in animal bodies may, for con- 
venience, be grouped under four heads: water, ash or mineral 
matter, fat, and nitrogenous matter or protein. These sub- 
stances occur in the animal body in somewhat varying propor- 
tions, depending upon age, condition, treatment, etc. 

Water is an essential constituent of the animal body and con- 
stitutes from 40 to 60 per cent of its live weight. Ash occurs 
mainly in the bones and constitutes from 2 to 5 per cent of 
the live weight. The fat occurs in greatly varying proportions, 
but rarely is less than 6 or more than 30 per cent. All 
those substances containing nitrogen are classed as protein. 
They constitute an important group, oi which washed lean meat 
and the white of eg^ may be taken as types. They contain about 
16 per cent of the element nitrogen and are the only class into 
the composition of which this element enters. All the working 
machinery of the body, such as flesh, skin, bones; hair, internal 
organs, brain and nerves, contain a large proportion of protein. 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 

The same four groups of substances found in animal bodies, 
viz. : water, ash, fat and protein, are also found in the food they 
consume and, in addition, the food of herbivorous animals contains 
a class called carbohydrates. 

Water. — All foodstuffs, no matter how dry they may seem, 
contain a considerable amount of water. In grains and drie'd 
fodders it ranges from 8 to 15 per cent of the material, in green 
forage and silage it is about 80 per cent, while in some roots it 
amounts to 90 per cent. While water is essential to animal life 
and the water in the food fulfils the same function as that drunk 
by the animal, we do not value food materials for the water they 
contain, and computations are based upon the water-free or dry 
matter. 

Ash. — When a foodstuff is burned till the organic matter is all 
driven off, the residue is the ash. It is composed largely of lime, 



362 THE ffOBSU 

magnesia, potash, soda, iron, chlorine, and carbonic, sulfuric and 
phosphoric acids. The ash of the food is the source of the mineral 
matter of the animal body, and as such is of great importance. 
Ordinary combinations of feeding stuffs, however, contain an 
abundant supply of mineral matter for the use of the animal, so 
it is not a matter of practical concern except as it has a bearing 
on the mineral elements of fertility in the manure. 

Fats. — This group embraces the materials which may be dis- 
solved from a feeding stuff by ether. It includes, besides the 
true fats, wax and coloring matter. Fat in the food may be either 
stored in the body as fat, or burned to produce heat and energy. 

Carbohydrates. — This term includes two groups, nitrogen-free 
extract, such as starch, sugar, gum, etc., and fiber, or the woody 
parts of plants. The former are quite freely digested, the latter 
much less so, though fulfilling the same function to the extent it 
is digested. The carbohydrates constitute the largest part of vege- 
table foods. They are not stored in the animal body as such, but 
are converted into fat or used (burned) to produce heat and 
energy. 

Since the carbohydrates and fat serve nearly the same purpose 
in the animal economy, they may, for convenience, be grouped 
together. Experiments, however, have shown that fat is about 
2X times as effective as a food as are the carbohydrates. Hence 
it is customary to multiply the amount of fat by 2/^ to reduce it 
to a "starch equivalent" before adding it to the amount of the 
carbohydrates. 

Protein. — The protein of foods, like that of the animal body, is 
characterized by containing nitrogen. It, therefore, is frequently 
termed ^^nitrogenous matter." The term albicmenoids is sometimes 
used to designate this group, though it more correctly implies 
a certain class of protein substances. The function of protein 
in the food is, first of all, to build up and repair the working 
machinery of the body, and to supply protein for the produc- 
tion of milk, wool, etc. No other food constituent can fulfil this 
function. 

The importance of a sufficient supply of protein in the ration, 
is, therefore, apparent. If in excess of the amount required to 



APPENDIX II 363 

build up and repair the watte of the body, the protein may be 
converted into fat and deposited as such or used to produce heat 
and energy. Its efficiency for these purposes is about the same as 
the carbohydrates, but as it is usually far more expensive to sup- 
ply than the carbohydrates, economy would dictate that only so 
much should be supplied to the animal as will suffice to repair the 
wastes of the animal machinery and build up new growth in case 
of growing animals, or for the production of milk, wool, etc. 

COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 

Nutritive ratio. — Since the protein on the one hand and the 
carbohydrates and fat on the other, serve, in the main, different 
purposes in the animal economy, it becomes evident that the 
relative amounts of these nutrients in the food are important. 
This relation is expressed as the "nutritive ratio," which means 
the relation of digestible protein to digestible carbohydrates and* 
fat — the fat having been multiplied by 2/^ before adding to the. 
carbohydrates, as explained above. The nutritive ratio is found 
by dividing the carbohydrate, plus 2% times the fat, by the pro- 
tein. In the accompanying table. No. II, the sum of the carbo- 
hydrates and fat, thus obtained, is given in the third column, 
which divided by the protein, as given in the second column, gives 
the second term of the nutritive ratio in the fifth column. 

A feeding stuff having a large proportion of carbohydrates and 
fat as compared to protein is said to have a "wide" nutritive 
ratio, while one having a small proportion of carbohydrates and 
fat as compared to protein has a "narrow" ratio. While these 
terms are relative, it may be said that a ratio greater than 1 : 6 is 
wide, while one less that 1 : 5 is narrow. The composition of feed- 
ing stuffs, that is, the proportion in which the different nutrients 
occur, is determined by chemical analysis, but the amount of each 
nutrient that is actually digestible has been determined by careful 
experiments with living animals. Only the digestible nutrients 
are considered in the tables given in this publication. 

Feeding Standards. — The amount of nutrients required, and the 
proportions in which each should be given, vary with the kind of 
animal and the purpose for which it is kept, — whether it is grow- 



364 



THI] HOBSE 



ing, being fattened, doing work, or producing milk or wool. 
Thus an ox at rest requires less food and the various nutr.ents in 
different proportions than an ox at work; a cow producing milk 
requires more food and the nutrients differently balanced than one 
not producing. 

TABLE I — Feeding Standards 

A— Per day and 1,000 pounds live weight.* 



Oxen at rest in stall 

Wool sheep, coarser breeds 

Wool sheep, finer breeds 

Oxen moderately worked 

Oxen heavily worked 

Horses lightly worked 

Horses modei'ately worked 

Horses heavily worked 

Milk cows, Wolff's standard 

Milk cows, Wisconsin standard 

Fattening oxen, preliminary period. . 

Fattening oxen, main period 

Fattening oxen, finishing period 

Fattening sheep, preliminary period. 

Fattening sheep, main period 

Fattening swine, preliminary period . 

Fattening swine, main period 

Fattening swine, finishing period 

Growing cattle: 

Average live weigM 
Age. Months. per head. 

2-3 150 lbs 

3-6 300 lbs 

6-12 500 lbs 

12-18 700 lbs 

18-24 850 lbs 

Growing sheep: 

5-6 56 lbs 

6-8 67 lbs 

8-11 75 lbs 

11-15 82 lbs 

15-20 85 lbs ;... 

G owing fat pigs: 

2-3 .50 lbs 

3-5 100 lbs 

5-6 125 lbs 

6-8 170 lbs 

8-12 250 lbs 



Dry 






matter. 


Protein. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


17.5 


07 


20.0 


1.2 


225 


1.5 


24.0 


1.6 


26.0 


2.4 


20.0 


15 


21.0 


1.7 


23.0 


2.3 


24.0 


2.5 


24.5 


2.2 


27.0 


2.5 


26.0 


3.0 


25.0 


2.7 


26.0 


3.0 


25.0 


3.5 


360 


5.0 


31.0 


4.0 


23.5 


2.7 


22.0 


4.0 


23.4 


32 


24.0 


2.5 


24.0 


2.0 


24.0 


1.6 


28.0 


3.2 


250 


27 


23.0 


2.1 


22.5 


1.7 


22.0 


1.4 


42.0 


7.5 


34.0 


5.0 


31.5 


4.3 


27.0 


3.4 


21.0 


2.5 



Digestible 




Carbo- 




hydrates 


Total. 


and fats. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


8.3 


9.0 


10.8 


12.0 


12.0 


13.5 


12.0 


13.0 


14.3 


16.7 


10.4 


11.9 


11.8 


13.5 


14.3 


16.6 


13.4 


159 


14.9 


17.1 


101 


18.6 


16.4 


19.4 


162 


18 9 


16.3 


19.3 


15.8 


19.3 


27.5 


32.5 


24.0 


28.0 


17.5 


20.2 


18.3 


22.3 


15.8 


19.0 


14.9 


17.4 


13.9 


15.9 


12.7 


14.3 


17.4 


20.6 


14.7 


17.4 


12.5 


14.6 


11.8 


135 


11. 1 


12.5 


30.0 


37.5 


25.0 


30.0 


23.7 


28.0 


20.4 


23 8 


16.2 


18.7 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 



1:11.9 

1:9.0 

1:8.0 

1:7.5 

1:6.0 

1:6.9 

1:6.9 

1:6.2 

1:5.4 

1:6.8 

1:6.4 

1:5.5 

1:6.0 

1:5.4 

1:4.5 

1:5.5 

1:6.0 

1:6.5 



4.6 
4.9 

6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

5.4 
5.4 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.5 



*The fattening rations are calculated for 1,000 lbs. live weight at the 
beginning of the fattening. 



APPENDIX II 



365 



Table I — Feeding Standards — Continued 

B— Per day and per head. 



Growing cattle: 

2-3 150 lbs 

3-6 300 lbs 

6-12 500 lbs 

12-18 7i)0 Ihs 

18-M 850 lbs 

Growing sheep: 

5-6 50 lbs 

6-8 67 lbs 

8-11 73 lbs 

11-15 82 lbs 

15-20 85 lbs 

Growing fat swine: 

2-3 50 lbs 

3-5 100 lbs 

5-6 125 lbs 

6-8 170 lbs 

8-12 250 lbs 



Dry 




Digestible 






Carbo- 




matter 


Protein 


hydrates 
and fats 


Total 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


3.3 


0.6 


2.8 


3.4 


7.0 


1.0 


4.9 


5.9 


12.0 


1.3 


7.5 


8.8 


1G8 


l.l 


9.7 


11.1 


20.4 


1.4 


11.1 


12.5 


1.6 


0.18 


0.974 


1.154 


1.7 


0.18 


0.981 


l.lCl 


1.7 


0.16 


0.9.53 


1.113 


1.8 


0.14 


0.975 


1.115 


1.9 


0.12 


0.955 


1.075 


2.1 


0.38 


1.50 


1.88 


3.4 


0..50 


2.50 


3.00 


3.9 


0.54 


2.96 


3.50 


4.6 


0..58 


3.47 


4.05 


5.2 


0.62 


4.05 


4.67 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



4.6 
4.9 
6.0 
7.0 

8.0 

5.4 
5.4 
6.0 
7.0 

8.0 

4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.5 



Various investigators have condensed the results of many 
experiments and much practical experience into what are called 
"feeding standards," which attempt to state what is in general, 
and under average conditions, a good ration for the purpose in 
view. While these standards cannot be considered as mathe- 
matically exact, still large practical experience has demonstrated 
their great value as aids to feeders. 

In Table I, under the title of Feeding Standards, are given the 
approximate requirements of various classes of animals and under 
varying conditions. These standards are mostly from German 
sources, but they have been found very helpful to American 
feeders. They are presented here as arranged by Armsby, in 
Circular of Information No. 1, "Computation of Rations for Farm 
Animals," Pennsylvania State College. The standards are for ani- 
mals of 1,000 pounds live weight, and may be increased or dimin- 
ished for larger or smaller animals, though it is probable that the 
individuality of the animal, its power to assimilate and produce, 
will have more to do with the varying of the ration than its weight. 



366 THE EOBSE 

It is permissible, perhaps, to depart from the amounts given in the 
first column under the head of "Dry Matter," more than in any 
other way. The digestive apparatus of farm animals is elastic and 
accommodates itself quite readily to the varying bulk of its food. 
In the last column is given the nutritive ratio, which should, per- 
haps, be adhered to with some care, trusting to the appetite of the 
animal (which will be controlled largely by its power of digesting 
and producing) to indicate the amount of nutrients required. As 
a rule the most rapid fattening or growth and abundant produc- 
tion are most economical, and these results are best secured by 
feeding an abundant and well-balanced ration (well up to the limit 
of the animal's appetite) while the dry matter is not permitted 
to rise much above the standard. 

Table II gives a list of the feeding stuffs in most common use 
in New York state. Column one is headed "dry matter" ; column 
two, "digestible protein"; column three, digestible carbohydrates 
-|-(fatX 2/^) " j column four, "total" (which is the sum of two and 
three); column five, "nutritive ratio." In each of these columns 
are given the computations of the various food stuffs from one 
pound up to the amount that is likely to be used in compounding 
any ration. In the case of the coarse fodders, to save space, the 
increase is made by more than one pound at a time, but inter- 
mediate amounts can readily be obtained from the table if desired. 
In no ease are the calculations for teji pounds of a feeding stuff 
given, as these can be obtained at once from the figures for one 
pound, by simply moving the decimal point one place to the right. 

These computations are based upon the table of "Average 
Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs" given in Prof. 
W. A. Henry's recent book, "Feeds and Feeding." The aim has 
been to carry the computations involved in formulating rations as 
near completion as possible, and to present the figures in such 
simple form that no feeder will have difficulty in comparing the 
ration he is feeding with the standards and correcting it, if neces- 
sary,- to conform thereto. 



APPENDIX II 



367 



TABLE II 

Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts of the more 

Common Feeding Stuffs 





Total dry 
matter 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fatX 
2.25) 


Total 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Soiling Fodder 
Fodder corn, 1 lb 


.20 
1.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 
8.00 

.16 
.80 
2.40 
3.20 
4.00 
4.80 
5.60 
6.40 

.16 

.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.28 
1.40 
4.20 
5.60 
7.00 
8.40 
9.80 
11.20 


.010 
.050 
.150 
.200 
.250 
.300 
.350 
.400 

.018 
.090 
.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 

.029 
.145 
.435 
.580 
.725 
.870 
1.015 
1.160 

.039 

.195 

.585 

.780 

.975 

1.170 

1.365 

1.560 


.125 
.625 
1.875 
2.500 
3.125 
3.750 
4.375 
5.000 

.076 
.380 
1.140 
1.520 
1.900 
2.280 
2.660 
3.040 

.077 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.138 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 


.135 
.675 
2.025 
2.700 
3.375 
4.050 
4.725 
5.400 

.094 
.470 
1.410 
1.880 
2.350 
2.820 
3.290 
3.760 

.094 

.193 
.965 
2.895 
3.860 
4.825 
5.790 
6.755 
7.720 

.177 
.885 
2.655 
3.540 
4.425 
5.310 
6.195 
7.080 


1:12.5 


'* " 5 lbs 




<< <' 15 " 




it it 20 ' ' 




" •' 25 " 

'< " 30 " 




<< <' 35 " 




*< " 40 " 




Peas and oats, 1 lb 

" " " 5 lbs 

" " " 15 " 

'< " " 20 '' 

" " " 25 '' 

«' '• " 30 " 

'' '* 35 " 

<' '' " 40 " 

Peas and barley 


1: 4.2 
1: 4.5 


Practically the same as peas 

and oats. 
Red clover, 1 lb 


1: 5.6 


" <' 5 lbs 




" " 15 " 




" " 20 " 




♦' " 25 *' 




" " 30 " 




" '' 35 '' 




'' " 40 " 




Alfalfa, 1 lb 


1: 3.5 


5 lbs 




" 15 " 




'< 20 " 




'' 25 " 




" 30 " 




" 35 " 




" 40 " 









368 



THE HORSE 

Table II — Continued 



Kind and amount of feed 



SOILING FODDER— Continued 



Hungarian grass, 1 
5 

15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



lb.. 

lbs. 



Corn silage, 1 lb.. 
5 lbs. 
" 15 " 
" 20 " 
" 25 " 
" 30 " 
•' 35 " 
" 40 •' 
" 45 " 
" 50 '' 



*Pea-vine silage, 1 lb.. 
5 lbs. 



a it ic < 

" '' 20 ' 

li << 25 '' 

<< .< 30 i. 

'♦ " 35 " 

Roots and Tubers 

Potatoes, 1 lb 

5 lbs 

15 " 

'♦ 20 " 

25 " 

Beet, mangel, 1 lb. . 

" " 5 lbs.. 

u a 15 ,. ^ 

a a 20 " . 



Total dry 
matter 



.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.21 
1.05 
3.15 
4.20 
5.25 
6.30 
7.35 
8.40 
9.45 
10.50 

.27 
1.45 
4.05 
5.40 
6.75 
8.10 
9.45 
10.80 



.21 
1.05 
3.15 
4.20 
5.25 

.09 

.45 

1.35 

1.80 



Lbs. of digestible nutrients 



Protein 



.020 
.100 
.300 
.400 
.500 
.600 
.700 
.800 

.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 
.270 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.4.50 

.025 
.125 
.375 
..500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
.900 



.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 



Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat X 
2.25) 



.169 
.845 
2.535 
3.380 
4.225 
5.070 
5.915 
6.760 

.129 
.645 
1.935 
2.580 
3.225 
3.870 
4.515 
5.160 
5.805 
6.450 

.141 
.705 
2.115 
2.820 
3.525 
4.2.30 
4.935 
5.640 



.165 

.825 

2.475 

3.300 

4.125 

.056 

.280 

.840 

1.120 



Total 



.189 
.945 
2.835 
3.780 
4.725 
5.070 
6.615 
7.560 

.138 
.690 
2.070 
y.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 
6.210 
6.900 

.166 
.830 
2.490 
3.320 
4.150 
4.980 
5.810 
6.640 



.174 

.870 

2.610 

3.480 

4.350 

.067 

.335 

1.005 

1.340 



Nutr'tive 
ratio 



1: 8.4 



1:14.3 



1: 5.6 



1:18.3 



1: 5.1 



*Computed from recent analysis, by G. W. Cavanaugh. 



APPEXDIX II 
Table II — Continued 



369 





Total dry 
matter 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat X 
2.25) 


Total 


Nutr'tive 
ratio 


ROOTS and TUBERS-Cont'd. 

Beet, mangel, 25 lbs 

30 " 

Beet, sugar, 1 lb 


2.25 
2.70 

.13 
.65 
1.95 
2.6U 
3.25 
3.90 

.11 
.55 
1.65 
2.20 
2.75 
3.30 

.87 

2.61 

4.35 

6.09 

6.96 

7 83 

10.44 

13.05 

15.66 

17.40 

.87 

2.61 

4.35 

6.09 

6.96 

7.83 

10.44 

13 05 

15.96 

17.40 


.275 
.330 

.011 
.055 
.165 
220 
.275 
.3,30 

.008 
.040 
.120 
.160 
.200 
.240 

.028 
.084 
.140 
.196 
.224 
.252 
.336 
.420 
.504 
.560 

.062 
.186 
.310 
.434 
.496 
.558 
.744 
.930 
1.116 
1.240 


1.400 
1.680 

.104 
.520 
1.560 
2.080 
2.600 
3.120 

.082 
.410 
1.230 
1.640 
2.050 
2.460 

.465 
1.395 
2.325 
3.255 
3.720 
4.185 
5 580 
6.975 
8.370 
9.. 300 

.460 
1..381 
2.300 
3.220 
3.080 
4.140 
5.520 
6.900 
8.280 
9.200 


1.675 
2.010 

.115 

.575 

1.725 

2.300 

2.875 
3.450 

.090 
.450 
1.350 
1.800 
2.250 
2.700 

.493 
1.479 
2.465 
3.451 
3.944 
4.437 
5.916 
7.395 
8.874 
9.860 

.522 
1.566 
2.610 
3.654 
4.176 
4.698 
6.264 
7.830 
9.393 
10.440 


1: 9.4 


" " 5 lbs 




" " 15 '♦ 

" " 20 " .. .. 

< i (-4 05 < < 

". " 30 " ...... \. 

Carrot, 1 lb 

<' 5 lbs 


1:10.3 


" 15 •' 




<< 20 " 




" 25 " 




" 30 " 




Hay and Straw 

Timothy, 1 lb 


1:16.6 


" 3 lbs 




'' 5 " 




" 7 " 




<< 8 " 




'' 9 " 




" 12 " 




" 15 " 




" 18 " 




'' 20 " 

Mixed grasses aud clover, 
1 lb 


1: 7.4 


3 lbs 




5 " 




7 " 




8 " 




9 " 




12 " 




15 '• 




18 " 




20 " 









370 



THE HORSE 
Table II — Continued 









Total dry 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 




Carbohy- 




N^utr'tive 




matter 




drates + 




ratio 






Protein 


(fat X 
2.25) 


Total 




HAY and STRAW— Continued. 












Hungarian hay, 1 lb 


.92 


.045 


.546 


.591 


1:12.1 


" 3 lbs 


2.76 


.135 


1.638 


1.773 




«' " 5 " 


4.60 


.225 


2.730 


2.955 




a a 7 '• 


6.44 


.315 


3.822 


4.137 




«• " 8 " 


7.36 


.360 


4.368 


4.728 




'» " 9 " 


8.28 


.405 


4.914 


5.319 




" 12 " 


11.04 


.540 


6.552 


7.092 




Bed clover hay, 1 lb 


.85 


.068 


.396 


.464 


1: 5.8 






' 3 lbs 


2.55 


.204 


1.188 


1.392 








' 5 " 


4.25 


.340 


1.980 


2.320 








' 7 " 


5.95 


.476 


2.772 


3.248 








' 8 '' 


6.80 


.544 


3.168 


3.712 








' 9 " 


7.65 


.612 


3.564 


4.176 








' 12 " 


10.20 


.816 


4.752 


5.568 








' 15 '' 


12.75 


1.020 


5.940 


6.960 








' 18 " 


15.30 


1.224 


7.128 


8.352 








' 20 " 


17.00 


1.360 


7.920 


9.280 




Alfalfa hay, 1 lb 


.92 


.110 


.423 


.533 


1: 3.8 


" 5 


lbs 


2.76 
4.60 


.330 
.550 


1.269 
2.115 


1.599 
2.665 




n 




" 7 " 


6.44 


.770 


2.961 


3.731 




" 8 '' 


7.36 


.880 


3.384 


1.264 




'' 9 " 


8.28 


.990 


3.807 


4.797 




" 12 " 


11.04 


1.320 


5.076 


6.396 




" 15 " 


12.80 


1.650 


6.345 


7.995 




•« '' 18 " 


16.56 


1.980 


7.614 


9.594 




" " 20 '' 


18.40 


2.200 


8.460 


10.660 




Corn fodder, 


1 lb 


.58 
2.90 
4.64 


.025 
.125 
.200 


.373 
1.865 
2.984 


.398 
1.990 
3.184 


1:14.9 


5 lbs 




8 " 




12 " 


6.96 


.300 


4.476 


4.776 




15 " 


8.70 


.375 


5.595 


5.970 




" 18 " 


10.44 


.450 


6.714 


7.164 




" 20 " 


11.60 


.500 


7.460 


7.960 




Com stover, 1 lb 


.60 


.017 


.340 


.357 


1:19.9 




5 lbs 


3.00 

4.80 


.085 
.136 


1.720 

2.720 


1.805 

2.856 




8 " 













APPENDIX II 

Table II — Contin^feH 



m 




♦Computed from recent analysis by G. W. Cavanaugh. 



M 



THE HORSE 



g'Ap^LE II — Continued 




Buckwheat, I lb., 
2 lbs. 



Total dry 
matter 



4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 



90 
,80 
70 
60 
50 



5.40 



1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 
10.68 
13.35 

.87 
1.74 



Lbs. of digestible nutrients 



Protein 



.395 
.474 
.553 
.632 
.711 

.102 
.204 
.306 
.408 
.510 
.612 

.099 
.198 
.297 
.396 
.495 
.594 

.087 
.174 
.261 
.348 
.435 
.522 

.092 
.184 
.276 
.368 
.460 
.552 
.644 
.7.36 
.828 
1.104 
1.380 

.077 
.154 



Carbohy- 
drates -f 
(fat X 
2.25) 



3.820 
4.584 
5.. 348 
6.112 
6.876 

.730 
1.460 
2.190 
2.920 
3.650 
4.380 

.700 
1.400 
2.100 
2.800 
3.500 
4.200 

.692 
1.384 
2.076 
2.768 
3.460 
4.152 

.568 
1.136 
1.704 
2.272 
2!840 
3.408 
3.976 
4 544 
5.112 
6.816 
8.520 

.533 
1.066 



Total 



4.215 
5.058 
5.901 
0.744 

7.587 

.832 
1.664 
2.496 
3.328 
4.160 
4.992 

.799 
1.598 
2.397 
3.196 
3.995 
4.794 

.779 
1.558 
2.337 
3.116 
3.895 
4.674 

.660 
1.320 
1.980 
2.640 
3.300 
3.960 
4.620 
5.280 
5.940 
7.920 
9.900 

.610 
1 220 



Nutr'tive 
ratio 



1: 7.2 



1: 7.1 



1: 7.9 



1: 6.2 



1: 6.9 



APPENDIX II 

Table II — Continued 



373 









Total dry 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 




Carbohy- 




Nutr'tive 




matter 




drates + 




ratio 






Protein 


(fat X 
2.2.0) 


Total 




GRAIN— Continued. 












Buckwheat, 3 lbs 


2.61 


.231 


1.599 


1.830 




»* 4 " 


3.48 


.308 


2.132 


2.440 




" 5 " 


4.. 35 


.385 


2 665 


3.050 




" 6 " 


5.22 


.462 


3.198 


3.660 




" 7 " 


6.09 
6.96 


.539 
.616 


3.731 
4.264 


4.270 
4.88<1 




'< 8 " 




9 " 


7.83 


.693 


4.797 


5.490 




Peas 

n 

4 ( 

Mill 


, 1 lb 


.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 


.168 

.336 

.504 

.672 

.840 

1.008 

1.176 

1.344 

1.512 


.534 
1.068 
1.602 
2.136 
2.670 
3.204 
3.738 
4.272 
4.806 


.702 
1.404 
2.106 
2.808 
3.510 
4.212 
4.914 
5.616 
6.318 


1: 3.2 


2 lbs 




3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




7 " 




8 " 




9 '• 




Products 




Corn and cob meal, 1 lb 


.85 


.044 


.665 


.709 


1:15.1 




2 lbs... 


1.70 


.088 


1.330 


1.418 






3 " ... 


2.55 


.132 


1.995 


2.127 






" 4 " ... 


3.40 


.176 


2.660 


2.836 






5 " ... 


4.25 


.220 


3.. 325 


3.545 






6 " ... 


5.10 


.264 


3.990 


4 2.54 






7 " ... 


5.95 


.308 


4.655 


4.963 






8 " ... 


6.80 


.352 


5.320 


5.672 






9 " ... 


7.65 


.396 


5.985 


6.381 




< ( (< !<> i< 


10.20 


.528 


7.980 


8.508 




Wheat bran. 1 lb 


.88 


.122 


.453 


.575 


1: 3.7 


" 2 lbs 




1.76 


.244 


.906 


1.150 




" 3 " 




2.64 


.366 


1.359 


1.725 




u 4 << 




3.52 


.488 


1.812 


2.300 




" 5 " 




4.40 


.610 


2.265 


2.875 




" 6 " 




5.28 


.732 


2.718 


3.450 




" 7 " 




6.16 


.8.54 


3.171 


4.025 




" 8 " 




7.04 


.976 


3.624 


4.600 




.; 9 " 




7.92 


1.098 


4.077 


5.175 





374 



THE HORSE 

Table II — Continued 



Kind and amount of feed 



MILL PRODUCTS— Continued. 

Wheat middlings, 1 lb 

2 lbs.... 
•' " 3 " .... 

<< <( 4 " 

*j • • • . 

( < < ( f ) " 

"■ " 8 " .... 

H it Q II 

Dark feeding flour, 1 lb... 

*' 2 lbs.. 

" " 3 " .. 

<< <( ^ << 

" ♦* 5 *' !! 

<( <( a a 

<« <<• y <( 

<( << u t< 

" " 9 " .. 

Low-grade flour, 1 lb 

" 2 lbs 

it << <( ^ " 

<« «< • << ^ <> 

<« << << 5 << 

<< << << g <( 

<< (( (< 17 << 

(< << << Q (< 

<( <( i< Q << 

Rye bran, 1 lb 

" " 2 lbs 

i< it q << 

<< << ^ li 

<< t< g (« 

(< << g (( 

<< <t y (< 

<( <( Q << 

" " 9 " .......... 

Buckwheat bran, 1 lb 

" 2 lbs... 
3 "... 



Total dry 
matter 



1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 



Lbs. of digestible nutrients 



Protein 



.128 
.256 
.384 
.512 
.640 
.768 
.896 
1.024 
1.152 

.135 
.270 
.405 
.540 
.675 
.810 
.945 
1.080 
1.215 

.082 
.164 
,246 
.328 
.410 
.492 
.574 
.656 
.738 

.115 
.230 
.345 
.460 
.575 
.690 
.805 
.920 
1.035 

.074 

.148 

9>9 



Carbohy- 
drates -|- 
(fat X 
2.25) 



.607 
1.214 
1.821 
2.428 
3.035 
3.642 
4.249 
4.856 
5.463 

.658 
1.316 
1.974 
2.632 
3.290 
3.948 
4.606 
5.264 
5.922 



Total 



.735 
1.470 
2.205 
2.940 
3.675 
4.410 
5.145 
5.880 
6.615 



.793 
1.586 
2.379 
3.172 
3.965 
4.758 
5.551 
6.344 
7.137 

.729 
1.458 

2.187 



Nutr'tive 
ratio 



2.588 


2.916 




3.235 


3.645 




3.882 


4.374 




4.529 


5.103 




5.176 


5.832 




5.823 


6.561 




.548 


.663 


1: 4.8 


1.096 


1.326 




1.644 


1.989 




2.192 


2.652 




2.740 


3.315 




3.288 


3.978 




3.836 


4.641 




4.384 


5.304 




4.952 


5.967 




.347 


.421 


1: 4.7 


.694 


.842 




1.041 


1.263 





1: 4.7 



1; 4.9 



1: 7.9 



atve:^dix II 

Table II — Continued 








Total dry 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 




Carbohy- 




Nutr'tive 




matter 




drates + 




ratio 






Protein 


(fat X 
2.25) 


Total 




MILL PRODUCTS-Continued. 








- 




Buckwheat bran, 4 lbs 


3.60 


.296 


1.388 


1.684 




'' '' 5 '• 


4.50 


.370 


1.735 


2.105 




" " 6 " 


5.40 


.444 


2.082 


2.526 




** '* 7 "... . 


6.30 


.518 


2.429 


2.847 




" " 8 " 


7.20 


.592 


2.776 


3.368 




(i (i 9 (< 


8.10 


.666 


3.123 


3.789 




Buckwheat middlings, 1 lb. . 


.87 


.220 


.456 


.676 


1: 1.1 


2 lbs. 


1.74 


.440 


.912 


1.352 




" '« 3 " . 


2.61 


.660 


1.368 


2.028 




K H 4 " . 


3.48 


.880 


1.824 


2.704 




" " 5 " ! 


4.35 


1.100 


2.280 


3.380 




** '' 6 " . 


5.22 


1.320 


2.736 


4.056 




<( <( y <4 


6.09 


1.540 


3.192 


4.732 




" " 8 " ! 


6.96 


1.760 


3.648 


5.408 




<( «< 9 " . 


7.83 


1.'980 


4.104 


6.084 




By-products 












Malt sprouts, 1 lb. 


.90 


.186 


.409 


.595 


1: 2.2 


2 lbs 


1.80 


.372 


.818 


1.190 




" 3 *' 


2.70 


.558 


1.227 


1.785 




•' " 4 " 


3.60 


.744 


1.636 


2.380 




" '' 5 " 


4.50 


.930 


2.045 


2.975 




" " 6 " 


5.40 


1.116 


2.454 


3.570 




7 '' 


6.30 


1.302 


2.863 


4,165 




8 " 


7.20 


1.488 


3.272 


4.760 




9 " 


8.10 


1.674 


3.681 


5.355 




Distillers' dried grains, 












Bile's xxxx, 1 lb 


.92 


.248 


.552 


.800 


1: 2.2 


2 lbs 


1.84 


.496 


1.104 


1.600 




3 " 


2.76 


.744 


1.656 


2.400 




4 " 


3.68 


.992 


2.208 


3.200 




5 " 


4.60 


1.240 


2.760 


4.000 




6 " 


5.. 52 


1.488 


3.312 


4.800 




* < " 


6.44 


1,736 


3.864 


5.600 




8 " 


7.36 


1.984 


4.416 


6.400 




Brewer's grain, wet, 1 lb... 


.24 


.039 


.125 


.164 


1: 3.2 


" 2 lbs.. 


.48 


.078 


.250 


.328 





376 



THU HOUSE 
Table II — Continued 





Total dry 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 




Carbohy- 




Nutr'tive 




matter 




drates -|- 




ratio 






Protein 


(fat X 
2.25) 


Total 




BY-PRODUCTS-Continued. 












Brewer's grain, wet, 3 lbs. 


.72 


.117 


.375 


.492 




" 4 '• , 


.96 


.156 


.500 


.656 




" " 5 " . 


1.20 


.195 


.625 


.820 




" 6 " . 


1.44 


.234 


.750 


.984 




it a "J a ^ 


1.68 


.273 


.875 


1.148 




i( (( 8 " . 


1.92 


.312 


l.OUO 


1.312 




«4 " 9 " . 


2.16 


.351 


1.125 


1.476 




a " 11 " . 


2.64 


.429 


1.375 


1.804 




" 12 " . 


2.88 


.468 


1.500 


1.968 




" " 15 " . 


3.60 


.585 


1.875 


2.460 




Brewer's grains, drv, 1 lb.. 


.92 


.157 


.478 


.635 


1: 3 


"' 2 lbs. 


1.84 


.314 


.956 


1.270 




< " 3 " 


2.76 


.471 


1.434 


1.905 




, <t << ^ < t 


3.68 


.628 


1.912 


2.540 




u .< 5 ;. 


4.60 


.785 


2.390 


3.175 




" " 6 " 


5.52 


.942 


2.868 


3.810 




(( K 7 "' 


6.44 


1.099 


3.346 


4.445 




u << 8 .. 


7.36 


1.256 


3.824 


5.080 




u a 9 .. 


8.28 


1.413 


4.302 


5.715 




Buffalo gluten feed, 1 lb... 


.90 


.232 


.699 


.931 


1: 3 


" 2 lbs.. 


1.80 


.464 


1.398 


1.862 




•' " " 3 " .. 


2 70 


.696 


2.097 


2.793 




t< << 14 4 " . 


3.60 


.928 


2.796 


3.724 




" " " 5 " . . 


4.50 


1.160 


3.495 


4.655 




i, 44 44 g 44 _ 


5.40 


1..392 


4.194 


5.586 




44 44 44 7 " 


6.30 


1.624 


4.893 


6.517 




44 44 44 8 4. "; 


7.20 


i.8.:6 


5.592 


7.448 




Chicago gluten meal, 1 lb. . 


.88 


.322 


.468 


.790 


1: 1.5 


'' " " 2 lbs. 


1.76 


!644 


.936 


1.580 




" " " 3 " 


2.64 


.966 


1.404 


2.370 




(( 44 44 4 " 


3.52 


1.288 


1.872 


3.160 




a (4 44 5 " 


4.40 


1.610 


2.340 


3.950 




li 44 44 g 44 


5.28 


1.932 


2.808 


4.740 




44 44 44 7 " 


6.16 


2.2.54 


3.276 


5.530 




44 44 44 8 44 


7.04 


2.576 


3.744 


6.320 




Hominy chop, 1 lb 


.89 


.075 


.705 


.780 


1: 9.4 


" 2 lbs 


1.78 


.150 


1.410 


1.500 


' 



APPENDIX II 

Table II — Continued 



377 





Total dry 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of fee J 




Carbohy- 




Xutr'tiye 




matter 




drates 4- 




ratio 






Protein 


(fat X 
2.25) 


Total 




BY-PRODUCTS— Contimted. 












Hominy chop, 3 lbs 


2. 07 


.225 


2.115 


2.340 




<< <» 4 »< 


3.5G 


.300 


2.820 


3.120 




" 5 " '.'.'.'.'.'. 


4.45 


.375 


3.525 


3.900 




" G " 


5.34 


.450 


4.230 


4.680 




<< (i 7 " 


6.23 


.525 


4.935 


5.460 




" '' 8 " 


7.12 


.600 


5.640 


6.240 




" <' 9 " 


8.01 


.675 


6.. 345 


7.020 




Linseed meal 












(old process),! lb 


.91 


.293 


.485 


.778 


1: 1.7 


2 lbs 


1.82 


.586 


.970 


1.556 




" " 3 " ...:.. 


2.73 


,879 


1.455 


2.334 




<< ii 4 '• 


3.64 


1.172 


1.940 


3.112 




" " 5 " !.!!!! 


4.55 


1.465 


2.425 


3.890 




" '' 6 " 


5.46 


1.758 


2.910 


4 668 




7 " 


6.37 


2.051 


3.395 


5.446 




Linseed meal 












(new process). 1 lb 


.90 


.282 


.464 


.746 


1: 1.6 


2 lbs 


1.80 


.564 


.928 


1.492 




3 " 


2.70 


.846 


1.392 


2.238 




4 " 


3.60 


1.128 


1.850 


2.984 




5 " 


4.50 


1.410 


2.320 


3.730 




6 " 


5.40 


1.692 


2.784 


4.470 




7 " 


6.30 


1.974 


3.248 


5.232 




Cotton-seed meal, 1 lb 


.92 


.372 


.444 


.810 


1: 1.2 


2 lbs. .. 


1.84 


.744 


.888 


1.632 




3 " ... 


2.76 


1.116 


1.332 


2 448 




" " 4 " . . . 


3.68 


1.488 


1.776 ' 


3.264 




" 5 " .*!'. 


4 60 


1.860 


2.220 


4.080 




" " 6 " ... 


5.52 


2.232 


2! 664 


4.896 




t < ( ( 7 " 


6.44 


2.004 


3.008 


5.712 




" " 8 " !!! 


7.36 


2.976 


3.552 


6.528 




•' " 9 " ... 


8.28 


3.348 


3.996 


7.344 




Miscellaneous 












Cabbage, 1 lb 


.15 
.75 


.018 
.090 


.091 
.455 


.109 
.545 


1; 5.1 


5 lbs 




15 " 


2.25 


.270 


1..3C5 


1.635 









378 



THE HORSE 
Table II — Continued 



Kind and amount of feed 



MISCELLANEOUS— Continued 

Cabbage, 20 lbs 

" 25 '' 

30 " 

35 " 

" 40 " 

Sugar beet leaves, 1 lb 

" 5 lbs... 

15 " .. 
" 20 " .. 
" 25 " .. 

30 " .. 

35 " .. 
" 40 " .. 



Sugar beet pulp, 1 lb. . 
5 lbs, 
" 15 " , 
" 20 " , 
. " 25 " , 
" 30 " , 
" 35 " , 
" 40 " . 



Beet molasses, 1 lb.. 

2 lbs 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 

7 " 



Total dry 
matter 



Apples, 1 lb. , 
" 5 lbs, 
" 15 '' , 
*' 20 " . 
" 25 " , 
" 30 " , 



3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5.25 
6.00 

.12 
.60 
1.80 
2.40 
3.00 
3.60 
4.20 
4.80 



10 
50 
50 
00 
50 
CO 
50 
,00 



.79 
1.58 
2.37 
3.16 
3.95 
4.74 
5.53 
6.32 
7.11 

.19 
.95 
2.85 
3.90 
4.75 
5.70 



Lbs. of digestible nutrients 



Protein 



.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 
.085 
.255 
.340 
.425 
.510 
.595 
.680 

.006 
.030 
.090 
.120 
.150 
1.80 
.210 
.240 

.091 
.182 
.273 
.364 
.455 
.546 
.637 
.728 
.819 

.007 
.035 
.105 
.140 
.175 
.210 



Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat X 
2.25) 



1.820 
2.275 
2.730 
3.185 
3.640 

.051 
.255 
.765 
1.020 
1.275 
1.530 
1.785 
2.040 

.073 
.365 
1.095 
1.460 
1.825 
2.190 
2.555 
2.920 

.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4.165 
4.760 
5..355 

.188 
.940 
2.820 
3.760 
4.700 
5.640 



Total 



Nutr'tive 
ratio 



2.180 
2.725 
3.270 
3.815 
4.360 

.068 
.340 
1.020 
1.360 
1.700 
2.040 
2.380 
2.720 

.079 
.395 
1.185 
1.580 
1.975 
2.370 
2.765 
2.160 

.686 
1.372 
2.058 
2.744 
3.430 
4.116 
4.802 
5.488 
6.174 

.195 

.975 

2.925 

3.900 

4.875 
5.850 



1: 3 



1:12 



1: 6.5 



1:26.8 



APPENDIX II 

Table II — Continued 



379 





Total dry 
matter 


Lbs. of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat X 
2.25) 


Total 


Nutr'tive 
ratio 


MISCELLANEOUS-Continued. 

♦Apple pomace, 1 lb 

5 lbs 

" " 15 " 

< < ii 20 " 

25 " ...... 

" " 30 " 

35 " 

40 " 

Skim milk, gravity, 1 lb... 
5 lbs., 
(i »< 8 " . . 
u << 12V.. 
«' " 15 " .. 
" " 20 " .. 
(( »< 25 " . . 
" " 30 " .. 

Skim milk, centrifugal, 
1 lb 


.233 
1.165 
3.495 
4.660 
5.825 
6.990 
8.155 
9.320 

.096 
.480 
.768 
1.152 
1.440 
1.920 
2.400 
2.880 

.094 
.470 
.752 
1.128 
1.410 
1.880 
2.3.50 
2.820 

.10 
..50 
.80 
1.20 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 


.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 
.385 
.440 

.031 
.155 
.248 
.372 
.465 
.620 
.775 
.930 

.029 
.145 
.232 
.348 
.435 
.580 
.725 
.870 

.039 
.195 
.312 
.468 
.585 
.780 
.975 
1.170 


.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.065 

.325 

.520 

.780 

.975 

1.300 

1.625 

1.950 

.059 

.295 

.472 

.708 

.885 

1.180 

1.475 

1.770 

.065 

.325 

.520 

.780 

.975 

1.300 

1.625 

1.950 


.175 
.875 
2.625 
3.500 
4.375 
5.250 
6.125 
7.000 

.006 
.480 
.768 
1.152 
1.440 
1.920 
2.400 
2.880 

.088 
.440 
.704 
1.056 
1.320 
1.760 
2.200 
2.620 

.104 
.520 
.832 
1.248 
1.560 
2.080 
2.600 
3.120 


1:14.9 
1: 2.1 

1: 2 


5 lbs 




8 " 




12 " 




15 " 




20 " 




25 " 




30 " 




Buttermilk, 1 lb 


1: 1.7 


" 5 lbs 




" 8 •' 




ti 22 " 




'• 15 " 




" 20 " 




" 25 " 




" 30 " 









*From Bulletin of Information No. 1, Pennsylvania State College. 



380 



THE HORSE 



To illustrate how these tables may be used, we will examine a 
system of feeding which the writer observed the present season in 
a certain section of the state, and was told was quite extensively 
practiced. The section referred to is devoted almost exclusively 
to dairying, and timothy hay constitutes the greater portion of the 
coarse fodder during the feeding season. Oats are about the only 
grain grown. Corn is purchased and ground with the oats, in 
about equal weights, to make "chop," which is fed with the hay. 
The cows will not greatly vary from 1,000 pounds live weight. 
While these cows are in full flow of milk in the spring before 
pasture is ready, they are fed about 20 pounds of hay and 8 
pounds of chop per day. Turning to the tables, we find that 20 
pounds of hay, 4 pounds of oats and 4 pounds of corn contain 
digestible nutrients as follows : — 





Dry 

matter 


Protein 


C. H. and 
Fat 


Total 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


20 lbs. hay 

4 lbs. oats 


17.40 
3.56 
3.56 


.560 
.368 
.316 


9.300 
2.772 
3.056 


9.860 
2.640 
3.372 




4 lbs. corn 








Total 


24.52 
24.00 


1.244 
2.5 


14 628 
13.4 


15.872 
15.9 


1:11.7 


Wolff's Standard 


1:5 4 







Upon comparison of the nutrients furnished by this ration with 
Wolff's standard as given in Table I, it is discovered that while 
the dry matter and total nutrients are not far out of the way, the 
protein is much too small, the carbohydrates and fat are some- 
what too great, while the nutritive ratio is far too wide. 

This result might readily have been foreseen had we paused a 
moment to note the nutritive ratio of each of the three foods 
entering into the ration. They are, timothy hay, 1: 16 6; oats, 
1:6.2; corn, 1:9.7. Neither of them is as narrow as the stan- 
dard, and it is impossible to combine them into a ration that is 
approximately balanced. As corn is a purchased product, the 
natural suggestion is that the corn should be replaced by some 
food having a high proportion of protein, or, in other words, a 
very narrow nutritive ratio. Consulting the table, it is found 
that among such are linseed meal, cotton-seed meal, gluten feed, 



APPENDIX II 



381 



malt sprouts, buckwheat, middlings, etc. As buckwheat mid- 
dlings is a New York State product and can readily be put in stock 
during the winter, it is suggested to substitute it for the corn in 
the ration. Again taking the figures from- the table, we have: — 





Dry 
matter 


Protein 


C. H. and 
Fat 


Total 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


20 lbs. timothy hay 

4 lbs. oats 


17.40 
3.56 
3.48 


.560 
.368 
.880 


9.300 
2.272 
1.824 


9.860 
2.640 
2.704 




4 lbs. buckwheat mid's.. 




Total 


24.44 


1.808 


13.396 


15.204 


1"7 4 







While this ration is much improved over the previous one and 
will produce a much freer flow of milk, it is still too wide to pro- 
duce the best results. 

If the timothy hay is reduced two pounds, and two pounds of 
cotton-seed meal put iu its place, we get: — 





Dry 
matter 


Protein 


C. H. and 
Fat 


Total 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


18 lbs. timothy hay 

4 lbs. oats 


15.66 
3.56 
3.48 
1.84 


.504 
.368 
.880 
.744 


8.370 
2.272 
1.824 

.888 


8.874 
2.640 
2.704 
1.632 




4 lbs. buckwheat mid's. . 
2 lbs. cottonseed meal . . 




Total 


24.54 


2.496 


13.354 


15.850 


1-5 3 







This ration corresponds very closely to the standard; and while 
the purchase of the cotton-seed meal will add somewhat to the 
expense, still it is the experience of careful feeders that the 
increased production will abundantly pay for thus securing a 
proper balance to the ration. 

The same result may be obtained by using other feeding stuffs 
having a narrow nutritive ratio. The question is likely to be 
raised, which of the various feeding stuffs offered in the market 
may most economically be used in supplementing the home- 
grown foods to produce a balanced ration? This question is best 
answered by formulating properly balanced rations containing 
each of the foods under consideration, and by assigning the actual 
market value per pound to each of the constituents of the ration, 
its cost is readily ascertained and the cheapest may be selected. 



382 THE HOBSE 

Elements of Fertility in 1,000 Pounds 



Alfalfa (green) 

Alfalfa hay 

Apple pomace 

Barley 

Barley and peas (green). 

Bean straw 

Beets ( sugar ) 

Brewer's grains, dry 

Brewer's grains, wet 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat mid., coarse . 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Corn fodder with ears . . . 

Corn silage (green) 

Corn stover 

Cotton-seed meal 

Gluten meal 

Hominy feed 

Hungarian grass (green), 

Indian corn 

Linseed meal, new P 

Linseed meal, old P 

Maize fodder (green) 

Malt sprouts 

Mangel-wurzel 

Mixed hay 

Oats 

Oat straw 

Peas 

Peas and oats (green) .. 

Pea vine straw 

Red clover (green) 

Red clover hay 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Skim milk, centrifugal.. 

Sugar-beet leaves 

Sugar-beet pulp 

Timothy hay 

Turnips 

Wheat 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat straw 



Water Ash 



760 
153 
740 
143 
755 

53 
820 

95 
762 
141 
156 
120 
856 
870 

92 
779 
150 

88 

86 

89 
870- 
130 
110 

89 
828 
120 
873 
137 
133 
145 
140 
467 
136 
790 
170 
134 
125 
906 
880 
898 
143 
905 
1.34 
132 
126 
136 



22.1 
80.2 

8.2 
24.8 
16.7 
69. 

8.1 
47.2 
12.4 
27.7 
28. 
47. 
14.1 
10. 
37.4 



45.3 
70.5 

7.3 
22.1 
12. 
14.8 
62.1 
61. 
14.7 
75.1 
12.2 
64.5 
31. 
57. 
28.1 
16.05 
66. 
16. 
62.1 
19.8 
46. 

7.4 
23.9 

5.8 
41.1 

8. 

17.1 
58. 
27. 
53. 



Nitro- 
gen 



6.2 
17.6 

1.7 
13.9 

2.7 
11.4 

1.7 
25.1 

6.2 
12.3 
11.8 
35.2 

2.8 

1.2 

4. 

1.4 

2.7 
59.5 
41.2 
12. 

3.2 
12.6 
45.1 
46.8 

1.6 
29.7 

1.7 

9.9 
14.7 

1.9 
26.8 

2.8 

6.8 

4.6 
10.8 
15.8 
18.4 

4.6 

2.7 
.96 

4.4 

1.8 

16.3 

19.5 

20.4 

.64 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Potash 



1.5 

6.1 

.1 

7.9 

1.8 

2.1 

.8 

16.1 

4.2 

6.9 

4.2 
12.3 

2.2 
.9 

2.9 

1.1 

3.8 
30.4 

3.3 

9.8 
.7 

5.7 
17.4 
16.6 

1.1 

17.4 

.9 

4.1 

6.9 

2.8 ■ 

8.4 

1.65 

3.5 

1.5 

5.5 

8.6 
22.8 

2.1 

1.5 
,2 

5! 

1. 

8.7 
26.9 
13.5 

2.2 



3, 
17, 



4 

5 
18 

3.7 

2. 
.5 

3. 

12.7 
11.4 

5.2 

2.6 
14. 

3.7 

16.4 

15.8 

.5 

4.9 

4.7 

3.7 
13.4 
13.7 

3.9 
19.9 

3.8 
13.2 

4.8 
17.7 
10.1 

6.25 
10.2 

4.8 
18.7 

5.8 
14. 

2. 

6.2 

.4 

14.1 

3.9 

5.5 
15.2 

7.4 

6.3 



Esti- 
mated 

value 
per ton 



$2 18 

7 08 
26 

5 04 

1 38 

5 04 

88 

8 70 



16 
34 

82 



11 98 

1 48 
65 

2 64 

82 
2 57 
20 82 



11 18 


4 68 


1 38 


4 34 


15 40 


15 83 


90 


11 68 


90 


4 33 


5 16 


2 38 


9 10 


1 50 


3 14 


1 86 


5 20 


5 72 


8 46 


1 65 


1 25 


32 


2 95 


94 


5 84 


9 24 


7 60 


94 



See "Fertility of the Land." 



APPENDIX III 

LIVE-STOCK REGISTRY ASSOCIATIONS, WITH THE 
NAMES OF THE SECRETARIES OR EDITORS 

HORSES 

American Thoroughbred Stud Book, 

James E. Wheeler, 173 Fifth Ave., New York. 

American Hackney Stud Book, 

A. H. Godfrey, Astor Court Bldg., West 34th St., New York. 

Dominion of Canada Hackney Stud Book, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 
American Morgan Registry, 

Jos. Battell, Middlebury, Vt. 
American Clydesdale Stud Book, 

Alex. Galbraith, Janesville, Wis. 
Dominion of Canada Clydesdale Stud Book, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 

American Shire Horse Association, 
Charles Burgess, Wenona, 111. 

Dominion of Canada Shire Horse Stud Book, 
Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 

American Cleveland Bay Stud Book, 

R. P. Stericker, Janesville, Wis. 
American Suffolk Punch Association, 

Alex. Galbraith, Janesville, Wis. 
Percheron Stud Book of America, 

S. D. Thompson, Wayne, 111. 

American French Coach Horse Society, 
S. D. Thompson, Wayne, 111. 

(383) 



384 THJi] HORSE 

National Register of French Draft Horses, 
C. E. Stubbs, Fairfield, Iowa. 

National Register of Norman Horses, 

Theo. Butterworth, Quincy, 111. 
American Belgian Draft Horse Association, 

J. D. Conner, Jr., Wabash, Ind. 
German Coach Horse Association, 

J. Crouch, Lafayette, Ind. 
Oldemburg Coach Horse Association, 

C. E. Stubbs, Fairfield, Iowa 
American Trotting Register Association, 

J. H. Steiner, 355 Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 
American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association, 

I. B. Nail, Louisville, Ky. 
American Jack Stock Stud Book, 

J. H. FuUton, Grassland, Tenn. 
American Shetland Club Stud Book, 

Mortimer Levering, Lafayette, Ind. 



CATTLE 

American Short-Horn Breeders' Association, 

John W. Groves, Springfield, 111. 
Dominion of Canada Short- Horn Herd Book, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 
American Polled Durham Herd Book, 

J. H. Miller, Mexico, Ind. 
American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, 

C. R. Thomas, Independence, Mo. 
Dominion of Canada Hereford Herd Book, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 
American Aberdeen-Angus Herd Book, 

Thomas McFarlane, Harvey, 111. 



APPENDIX III 385 

Dominion of Canada Polled Angus Herd Book, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 
American Galloway Breeders' Association, 

Frank B. Hearne, Independence, Mo. 
American Jersey Cattle Club Herd Register, 

J. J. Hemingway, 8 West 17th St., New York. 

American Jersey Herd Book, 

O. B. Hadwen, Worcester, Mass. 

Maine State Jersey Cattle Association Herd Book, 
N. R. Pike, Winthrop, Me. 

American Guernsey Cattle Club Herd Register, 
Wm. H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N. H. 

Holstein-Friesian Herd Book, 

Frederick L. Houghton, Brattleboro, Vt. 

Holstein-Friesian Herd Book of Canada, 
J. W. demons, St. George, Ont. 

Dutch Belted Herd Book, 

H. B. Richards, Easton, Pa. 

American Branch Association North Holland Herd Book, 
Fred. H. Beach, Dover, N. J. 

Ayrshire Record, 

C. M. Winslow, Brandon, Vt. 
Canadian Ayrshire Herd Book, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 
American Devon Record, 

L. P. Sisson, Wheeling, W. Va. 
Canada Devon Record, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 
Swiss Record, 

N. S. Fish, Groton, Conn. 
Red Polled Herd Book, 

J. McLain Smith, Dayton, Ohio. 
American Sussex Association, 

Overton Lea, Nashville, Tenn. 



386 THE HOBSE 

American Holderness Herd Book, 
T. A. Cole, Solsville, N, Y. 

Kerry Cattle, 

Henry S. Ambler, Chatham, N. Y. 

SHEEP, GOATS AND RABBITS 

American Shropshire Sheep Record, 
Mortimer Levering, Lafayette, Ind. 

Flock Record of Hampshire -Down Sheep, 
C. A. Tyler, Nottawa, Mich. 

American Leicester Record, 

A. J. Temple, Cameron, 111. 
Dorset-Horn Sheep Breeders' Association of America, 

M. A. Cooper, Washington, Pa. 

Dorset-Horn Continental Club, 

J. E. Wing, Mechaniesburg, Ohio. 

American Cheviot Sheep Society, 

F. E. Dawley, Fayetteville, N. Y. 
American Cotswold Record, 

Geo. Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis. 

American Southdown Association, 

Frank S. Springer, Springfield, 111. 
American Oxford -Down Record, 

W. A. Shafor, Middletown, Ohio. 

Standard American Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, 
John P. Ray, Hemlock Lake, N. Y. 

Standard Delaine Spanish Merino Shbep Breeders' Associa- 
tion, 
S. M. Cleaves, East Bethlehem,^ Pa. 

National Merino Sheep Register Association, 
C. C. Johnson, Canonsburg, Pa. 

Register Michigan Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, 
E. N. Ball, Hamburg, Mich. 



APPENDIX III QQT- 

Register N. Y. State American Merino Sheep Breeders' 
Association, 
J. Horatio Earll, Skaneateles, N. Y. 

Register Vermont Merino Sheep Breeders' Association 
Lewis A. Skiff, Middlebury, Vt. 

CJ. S. Merino Sheep Breeders' Registry Association 

J. A. B. Walker, Enon Valley, Pa. 
Black Top Spanish Merino Sheep Register, 

W. G. Berry, Houstonville, Pa. 
Improved Black Top Merino Association, 

L. M. Harsh, Union City, Mich. 

Standard Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders' Association 
Alexander TurnbuII, Cedarville, Ohio. 

National Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders' Association 

John C. McNary, Canonsburg, Pa. 
National Dickinson Record Co., 

H. G. McDowell, Canton, Ohio. 

AMERICAN RaMAOUILLET ShEEP BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION 

L. V. Burnham, Woodstock, Ohio. 
Ohio Merino Breeders' Association, 

Wesley Bishop, Troyton, Ohio. 
Vermont Atwood Club Register, 

Geo. Hammond, Middlebury, Vt. 

NATIONAL IMPROVED SaXONY ShEEP BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION, 

John G. Clark, R. D. No. 9, Washington. Pa 
AMERICAN Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association, 

L. C. Graham, Cameron, 111. 
National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association 

Bert Smith, Charlotte, Mich. ' 

International Lincoln Society, 

H. A. Daniels, Millington, Mich. 
American Suffolk Flock Registry Association 

F. A. Franklin, Atlantic, Iowa. ' 



o 



38g THE HORSE 

Dominion Sheep Breeders' Flock Book of all Breeds, 

Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 
American Angora Goat Breeders' Association, 

C. P. Bailey, San Jose, Cal. 
American Belgian Hare Registry Association, 

Dr. E. R. Allen, Kansas City, Mo. 

SWINE 

American Berkshire Association, 

Chas. F. Mills, Springfield, 111. 

Central Poland -China Record, 

W. H. Morris, Indianapolis, Ind. 

Standard Poland-China Record, 

Geo. F. Woodworth, Marysville, Mo. 

Ohio Poland-China Record, 

Carl Freigau, Dayton, Ohio. 

American Poland-China Record Co., 

William M. McFadden, West Liberty, Iowa. 

National Chester- White Record, 

Thos. Sharpless, Westchester, Pa. 

Standard Chester- White Record Association, 
W. H. Morris, Indianapolis, Ind. 

American Chester- White Record, 
Carl Freigau, Dayton, Ohio. 

American Duroc-Jersey Record, 

A. V. Braderick, Connersville, Ind. 

National Duroc-Jersey Record, 
Robt. J. Evans, El Paso, 111. 

Cheshire Herd Book, 

B. B. Badger, Ouaquaga, N. Y. 

Victoria Swine Record, 
H. Davis, Dyer, Ind. 



APPENDIX III 389 

Record Improved Essex Swine, 
F. M. Srout, McLean, 111. 

Small- Yorkshire Swine Register, 

Geo. W. Harris, Box 3432, New York. 

National Berkshire Record Association, 

E. K. Morris, Indianapolis, Ind. 
American Yorkshire Club, 

W. F. Wilcox, Minneapolis, Minn. 

American Suffolk Association, 

W. F. Watson, Winchester, Ind. 
Tamworth Swine Association, 

E. N. Ball, Hamburg, Mich. 

Gothland Swine Breeders' Association, 
Grant W. Spear, Aurora, 111. 

Dominion Swine Breeders' Record of all Breeds. 
Henry Wade, Toronto, Ont. 



APPENDIX IV 

NUMBER AND VALUE OF HORSES 

From Report of the Twelfth United States Census 

Horses were reported on 4,532,018 farms and ranges, June 1, 
1900, and in 1,373,661 barns and other inelosures not on farms or 
ranges. The number on farms and ranges comprised 1,315,208 
colts under 1 year old, 1,447,747 horses 1 and under 2 years, and 
15,517,052 horses 2 years and over. The numbers not on farms 
and ranges were, for the three classes named, 33,090; 30,402, and 
2,873,389, respectively. There was, therefore, a total for the 
United States of 18,390,441 work-horses and 2,826,447 too young 
for work, making a grand total of 21,216,888 horses, of which' 86.8 
per cent were on farms and ranges and 13.2 per cent in barns and 
inelosures elsewhere. 



Number and Value of Horses and Colts in the 
United States in 1900 





Horses 


States and 
Territories 


Colts, under 1 year 


Colts, 1 and under 
2 years 


2 years and over 




Number 


Value 


Number 


Value 


Number 


Value 


The United States* 


1,315,208 


$25,900,109 


1,447,747 


$48,335,128 


15.517,052 


$822,720,106 


North Atlantic 














Division 

South Atlantic 


57,744 


$1,848,932 


82,978 


$4,669,925 


1,558,417 


$116,830,468 


Division 

North Central 


56,527 


1,324,033 


60,944 


2,482,859 


953,599 


56,098,624 


Division 

South Central 


723,896 


15,993,815 


802,439 


30,298,014 


8,267,927 


469,738,862 


Division 

Western Division 


248,894 
227,768 


4,487,897 
2,242,194 


241,086 

258,778 


6,476,530 
4,371,311 


2,934,783 
1,791,240 


120,179,811 
59,469,942 



*Data for Alaska and Hawaii included in totals for United States, but not 
in those for the five geographical divisions. 

(390) 



APPENDIX IV 



391 



Number and Value of Horses and Colts in the 
United States in 1900 — Continued 



States and 
Territories 



AlabaniH 

Alaslca 

Arizona 

Arkansas .... 
California . .. 

Colorado 

Connecticut. . 
Delaware .... 
Dist. of Col'm'a 

Florida 

Georgia 

Hawaii 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian Terri'y . 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico . . . 

New York 

North Carolina. 
North Dakota. . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . . 
Rhode Island . . 
South Carolina. 



Horses 



Colts, under 1 year 



Number 



8,724 



18,976 
16,815 
23,049 
23,645 
429 

1,.590 
16 

2,2.39 

4,028 

379 

18.212 

107,967 

52,426 

20.054 

124,527 

72,539 

26,487 

13,510 

2,834 

8,942 
799 
31.018 
45,504 
17,089 
58,177 
39,838 
66,776 
10,778 
702 

1,826 
16,666 
20,027 

5,807 
28,625 
55,324 
26,933 
26,1.38 
28,547 
91 

2,701 



Value 



$203,492 



82,610 

289,075 

423,427 

291.280 

17,952 

42,110 

590 

42,156 

99,935 

3,238 

136,246 

2,518,050 

1,.308.117 

213,041 

2,991,078 

1,465,610 

1,062,057 

166,312 

78,537 

231,074 

47,177 

746,534 

970.772 

367,069 

1,277,129 

364,743 

1,284,984 

.56,296 

23,847 

153,251 

99,127 

650,894 

131,675 

546,743 

1,395,896 

423,331 

267,521 

806,696 

4,740 

69,778 



Colts, 1 and under 
2 years 



Number Value 



7,840 



22,283 

14,179 

24,639 

27,360 

1,480 

1,903 

24 

2,185 

4,525 

1,522 

20,832 

115,377 

54,820 

19,2.53 

133,589 

78,447 

24,927 

12,076 

3,955 

9,938 

2,298 

38,406 

51,399 

14,489 

63,214 

44,850 

73,082 

11,001 

1,543 

3,054 

16,550 

30,0.33 

5,927 

.32,131 

67,332 

28,382 

27,682 

36,584 

179 

3,188 



$299,118 



1.52,878 

381,735 

763,613 

530,164 

94,030 

84,427 

1,475 

75,232 

189,539 

36,489 

278,326 

4,575,418 

2,365,668 

324,049 

5,3.59,392 

2,462,398 

1,428,700 

274,190 

201,548 

455,204 

160,121 

1,711,541 

2,031,557 

495,714 

2,070,506 

839,. 334 

2,316,583 

102,188 

90,816 

240,380 

177,458 

1,771,023 

233,882 

1,127,100 

3,037,402 

656,139 

480,133 

1,916,501 

13,779 

161,587 



2 years and over 



Number 



136,073 

5 

83,804 

222,596 

373,605 

185,541 

50,667 

26,229 

814 

38,387 

118,854 

11,081 

131,076 

1,126,875 

644,469 

178,392 

1,134,457 

828,709 

400,283 

168,786 

99,510 

130,114 

71,937 

517,135 

599,566 

197,733 

845,646 

245,284 

655,460 

58,516 

52,621 

89,144 

97,937 

578,378 

147,419 

299,192 

755,549 

248,316 

234,112 

525,850 

11,120 

72,530 



Value 



$7,403,511 

465 

1,466,417 

9,493,685. 

16,657,953 

6,487,282 

3,701,650 

1,641,088 

55,297 

2,172,751 

6,802,754 

401,934 

3,708,771 

62,604,632 

36,968,203 

5,686,628 

69,370,107 

39,830,326 

22,057,785 

6,184.115 

6,778,904 

8,666,416 

5,619,159 

33,450,482 

39,252,715 

10,020,068 

38,747,179 

6,584,595 

33,061,792 

1,113,852 

3,726,007 

7,188,643 

1,943,884 

45,556,014 

8,430,054 

21,054,668 

45,725,947 

9,535,824 

7,903,406 

38,225,630 

962,429 

4,615,538 



392 



THE HOBSE 



Number and Value qf Horses and Colts in the 
United States in 1900 — Continued 





Horses 


States and 
Tei-ritories 


(Jolts, under 1 year 


Colts, 1 and under 
2 years 


2 years and over 




Number 


Value 


Number 


Value 


Number 


Value 


South Dakota. . 

Tennessee 

Texas 


47,124 
23,853 
95,429 
11,395 
2,489 
19,257 
22,359 
11,947 
33,889 
16,712 


$700,748 
663,620 

1,099,900 
122,843 
65,838 
441,858 
253,658 
264,857 
788,154 
144,443 


52,659 
23,109 
96,825 
13,515 
3,852 
20,291 
30,312 
12,963 
41,983 
19,754 


$1,369,292 
993,396 

1,623,489 
247,348 
181,727 
780,009 
502,760 
501,504 

1,871,157 
297,109 


380,985 

305,426 

1,077,178 

90,974 

79,190 

258,974 

191,314 

160,278 

479,884 

99,077 


$18,015,647 
18,024,501 
31,773,694 


Utah 


3,026,122 


Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia. . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


5,072,032 
14,104.537 

7,794,016 

9.610,189 
31,657,164 

2.783.644 



Number and Value op Horses and Colts on Farms and Ranges 
IN the United States, June 1, 1900, with Average Values 



Classes 


Number 


Value 


Average 
value 


All horses 


18,280,007 


$896,955,343 


$49 07 






Colts, under 1 year 


1,315,208 

1,447,747 

15,517,052 


$25,900,109 

48,335,128 

822,720,106 


$19 m 


Colts, 1 and under 2 vears 


33 39 


Horses, 2 years and over 


53 02 







Number of Horses, June 1, 1900, in Cities of Specified Numbers 

AND Inhabitants 



Classified by Population 



All cities of over 25,000 inhal)itants . 
Cities of 25,000 to 50,000 inhabitants , 
Cities of 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants 
Cities of over 100,000 inhabitants. 



Number to 100,000 
inhabitants 



4,396 
5,321 
4,443 
4.204 



APPENDIX IV 



393 



Number and Estimated Value of Horses and Colts not on Farms 

OR Ranges, and Estimated V^alue of all Horses in the 

United States, June 1, 1900 





Not on farms or ranges 


Estimated 


Classes 


Number 


Estimated 
value 


value of all 
horses 


All horses 


2,936,881 


$154,013,750 


$1,050,969,093 






Colts, under 1 year 


33,090 

30,402 

2,873,389 


$651,542 

1,015,123 

152,347,085 


$26,551,651 


Colts, 1 and under 2 years 

Horses, 2 j^ears and over 


49,350,251 
975,067,191 



Number of Horses on Farms and Ranges in the United States, 

BY Geographical Divisions; Summary 1850 to 1900 

(Expressed in thousands) 



Geographic Division 


*1900 


tl890 


tl880 


tlSTO 


tl860 


tl850 


The United States .... 


16,965 


+15,266 


10,357 


7,145 


6,249 


4,337 


North Atlantic 

South Atlantic 

North Central 

South Central 

Western 


1,641 
1,015 
9,070 
3,176 
2,050 
13 


1,739 

880 

J8,574 

+2,462 

tl,611 


1,555 

801 

5,467 

1,921 

613 


1,336 

591 

3.613 

1,311 

294 


1,280 

774 

2,542 

1.4.36 

217 


1,074 

771 

1,399 

1.056 

37 


Alaska and Hawaii ... 





* Exclusive of spring colts. 

tNo separate report or estimate of range animals made. 

X Including estimated number of range animals separately reported, 



Number of Horses Exported prom the United States, 1891 to 1901 



Year 


Number 


Year 


Number 


1891 


3,110 
3,226 
2,967 
5,246 
13,984 
25,126 


1897 


39,532 
51,150 


1892 ' 


1898 


1893 


1899 


45,778 


1894 


1900 


64,722 


1895 


1901 


82.250 


1896 











394 



TEE HORSE 



Estimated Average Value of Horses in the United States; 
Summary, 1880 to 1900 




INDEX 



Abderame, Saracen chief, 156. 

Accidents in pacing, 85. 

Air, warm and cool, 340. 

Alexander I., 63. 

American boy and the horse, 3, 4, 15. 

breeds, dearth of, 42. 

thoroughbred, 61. 

trotters discussed, 43. 
Americans poor drivers, 297. 
Animals for illustration, 149. 
Appendix I., 354- 59. 

II. 360. 

III. Live-stock registry, 381-387. 

IV. Number and value of horses, 
388-392. 

Arabian horse in France, 32. 

in Great Britain, 29. 
Army-horses, breeding of, 354. 
Artillery-horses, 355. 
Ashes for horses, 311. 
Association, National Trotting Horse 

Breeders', 74. 
Atavism explained, 201. 
Attachment, high and low, 351. 

Backing horses, 315. 
the horse, 290. 

Bakewell, Robert, 141. 

Beauty valuable, 234. 

Beginner, suggestions for, 222. 

Belgium draft, characteristics, 169; de- 
scription, 171; draft, 168; origin, 
168; size of , 169; stallion. Fig. of, 
169, 170. 

Bits, kinds of, 285. 

Black horse of Europe, 139. 

Blankets for draft-horses, 312. 
how to use them, 293, 



Boulonnais, description of. 168; draft, 

168; origin, 168. 
Breeders' Gazette, 151. 
Breeding for the army, 354. 

generations discussed, 183. 

horses, 267. 

laws of, 178. 

laws of, discussed, 176. 

mares, how secured. 204. 

mistakes of, 175. 

modified by inheritance, 181. 

nondescripts, 33. 

plan of, 202. 

principles of, 174. 

remarks on, 76, 77, 78. 

scientific, 76, 77, 78. 

stockholders interested, 202. 

studied under eight heads, 180. 

theory not correct, 184. 

variations, 177. 
Breeds, explanation of, 49. 

formation of, discussed, 44. 

how originated, 145. 

suitably placed, 223. 
Bressay of Pittsford, Shetland. 127. 
British horse, 61. 
Broadhead, Colonel, 69. 
Brokeu-gaited horses, 85 
Brood-mare, characteristics, 208; de- 
scription of , 206; Fig. of, 205; filley. 
Fig. of. 207; first lesson, 207; how 
worked, 217 ; kept on farms, 225; 
paddosks for, 217. 
Bronco-gaited, 134. 

Canadian horses to United States, 87. 
Cattle, wild, 179. 
Cavalry-horses, 69, 356. 



(395) 



396 



INDEX 



Champion Welsh pony mare, 129. 

Charles II., 39. 

Chase, A. C, 336. 

Chaucer, 70. 

Chillingham Park, 179. 

Cities' demand for heavy horses, 229. 

Cleveland Bay, discussed, 102. 

Climate, effect of, on conformation, 190, 
the part it plays, 189. 
severe effects of, on conformation, 
191. 

Clyde Dunsmoi-e, combination, 148. 

Clydesdale, 17, 31, 39; description of, 
141; diminution of feather, 144 ; 
Figs, of, 140, 142, 144, 146; Borth- 
wiek. Imported, 144; in Great Brit- 
ain, 144; in the U. S.. 144; Lord 
Stewart, Fig. of, 140; mare, 146 ; 
origin, 141; wasp- waisted, 143; 
weight of, 143. 

Coacher, trotters as sires of, 103. 

Coach-horses, 95; agood one, 101; carri- 
ages for, 99; checked high, 96; Cleve- 
land Bay, 100; description of, 95, 97; 
desirable characteristics, 98; dis- 
cussed, 95; for America, 99; for 
leisure class, 96; size of, 95; uses 
of, 97. 

Color of horses, 235. 

Colts, and the farm boy, 272; being 
thrown, 279; building for, 335; cost 
of, 269; cost of raising, 225, 269; de- 
fined, 218 ; educate the farm boy, 273 ; 
education, 275; education in detail, 
276; fall, versus spring, 210; how 
subdued, 280; in mixed husbandry, 
269; plan of breeding, 211; presented 
by father, 274; profits in raising, 
271; ready for second lesson, 278; 
receiving first lesson, 277; sale of, 
213; two-toed, Fig. of, 239; versus 
cows, 212, 270; when to breed, 211. 

Commoner's horse, 47. 

Computing rations for farm animals, 
360. 

Conditions to be made superior, 194. 

Constipation, how relieved, 310. 



Cool stables, 338. 
Cow-hocked legs. Fig. of, 238. 
Cresceus, 74; Fig. of, 75. 
Crossing, rules for, 196. 
Crusades, 63. 
Curtis, G. W., 159. 
Custom of the road, 352. 

Dam and sire, influence of, 197. 

Damp stables, 338. 

Dan Patch, 80; Fig. of, 83. . 

Demi-Sangs, 104. 

Denmark, foundation of saddlers, 88. 

Description of the horse wanted. 48. 

Discovering blemishes, 244. 

Discussion of feeding rations, 360-363. 

Domestication, 21. 

Draft breeds, 156; British, 156; French, 

156. 
Draft-colt, first lesson. Fig. of, 209. 
Draft -horse, 139; heavy, 2; imported, 
64; medium, 2, 5; in Great Britain, 
30. 
Draft, line of, 348, 349; Fig. of, 348; 

Fig. of, 349. 
Driving badly, 288, 290. 

colts, 302. 

draft-horses, 314. 

farm-horses, 314. 

good and bad, 298. 

in Great Britain, 299? 

instructions, 287. 

jockey style, 300. 

plow-horses, 300. 

position of hands in, 299. 

pullers, 300. 

roadsters, 299. 

slack rein, 301. 

system of, 301. 

trotters, 299. 
Duchess of Geneva, 52. 

pedigree illustrated, 553. 
Du Hays, Charles, 31, 32, 156. 
Dunsmore Combination Clyde, 148. 

Eads, James B., 177. 

Economical application of energy, 347, 



INDEX 



397 



Edward II.. 64. 

Effects of careless coupling, 347. 
food, 347. 
native ability, 347. 
propitious climate, 228. 
Energy economically applied, 350. 
efficiently applied. Fig. 92, 347, 
Englisli Shire, 147; description of, 147; 

Fig. 33, 148. 
English stud-book, 61. 
Evolution, law of, 196. 
Exile of Pittsford, Shetland, 126. 
Experimental breeding, 139. 
Exportation in Great Britain, forbid- 
den, 27, 
Family horse, 234. 
Farm-horse in Great Britain, 26. 

in United States, 2, 4, 8, 12. 
Feeding balanced rations, 308. 
brood-mare, 214, 215. 
coarse material, 304. 
draft- horses, 303. 
experiments, 305. 
ioal, 214. 

foal, milk temperature of, 220. 
foal, succulent food, 220. 
grass, 307. 
horses, 281. 
quantity, 304. 
rations, 215. 
discussion, 360-363. 
when, 304. 

when at light work, 306. 
Foal, care of, when young, 221. 
Foals, number of, in 1880, 68. 
Feet, conformation of, 245. 
Fields and paddocks, 346. 
Fitting the harness, 284. 
Flemish horses, 26; compared with 
Belgians, 173; described, 171; draft, 
140, 171; illustration, Fig. 45, 172. 
Flying Childers, 147. 
Fly-nets— use explained, 312. 
Food, effect of, 187. 
Foods for horses, 282. 

Qiiantity fed, 283. 
Foreign horses in stud. 65. 



Forester, Frank, 38. 

describes English breeding, 39. 
Formation of breeds discussed, 44. 
Foundation stock, 36. 
discussed, 36. 
for army-horses, 359. 
French coach-horse, 105; Fig. 15, 106; 
description, 104, 106, 107; govern- 
ment control, 105; origin, 104. 
French draft-horse, 161-167; stud-book, 

161-167; description of, 167. 
Friction relieved, 349. 
Fright, 18. 
Full-blood explained, 146. 

Gaited bronco, 134. 

Gallipoli, 159. 

Galloways, 125. 

Geddes, George, 15. 

General-pm-pose horse, 2. 

German coach at World's Fair, 109; 

description of. 109; Fig. 16, 108; 

stud-book, 109. 
Gestation, period of, 219. 
Godolphin, 159. 
Godolphiu Arabian, 65. 
Good driving, 297. 
Gould, J. S., 13. 
Grade defined. 58. 
Grades, breeding of, 226. 
Grooming the horse, 292. 

Habit, a factor in improvement, 192. 

Hackney, 110; back ideal, 110; breed- 
ing of,^114; Cadet, Fig. 17, 111; 
Cassatt! A. J.. 113, 114; Coutts, 
Burdett, 112; description of, 112; de- 
mand for, 113, 114; Fandango, Fig. 
18, 113; how produced. Ill; impor- 
tations from Europe, 114; in Eng- 
land, 111; Little Wonder, 112; 
limbs flexible, 112; Lawrence, Pres- 
cott, 113; pleasing appearance sat- 
isfies the eye, 113; size of, 112; 
Stevens, Frederick C, 113; sold, 
114; west of Ohio river, 114, 

Hands in driving, 297. See, also, Driv- 
ing. 



398 



INDEX 



HHUSom-cab, 352; Fig. 95, 353. 

Harness, fitting of, 284. 

Hay, provision for, 345. 

Henry III., 64. 

Herbert, on the horse, 62. 

Hoppling racers, 85. 

Horses, abandoned by DeSoto, 34; 
action of, 73; beauty of, 78; bred by 
the commoner, 268; breeding, 267 
bones of, in Kirkdale cave, 35 
Conestoga, 35; care of legs, 294 
color of, 78; character wanted and 
how procured, 46-47; days' work, 
291; divided into groups, 237; Eng- 
lish books on, 71; fat and lean, 
281; feeding of, 281; for war pur- 
poses, 104; fossil remains of, 34; 
in France, 31; in Great Britain, 26; 
grooming of, 292; guaranteed, 232; 
imported, 64; imported by Colum- 
bus, 35; in hansoms, 353; landed 
by Cortez, 35; love for, 1, 3; modi- 
fied by climate, 189; modified by 
Puritans, 40; nondescript, value 
of, 46; number and value. Appen- 
dix IV., 388-392, saddlers, 71; siege 
of Azof, 34; to Canada, 35; to New 
York, 35; to Pennsylvania, 35; two 
varieties, 122; vise of, 41; watering 
of, 290; when blanketed, 293; when 
ridden, 72; when to clean, 295; 
wild, 34; wild, of South America, 
34; winter work for, 224; see, also. 
Farm - horse, Draft - horse, Pony, 
Roadster. 

Horse-power, 9, 10. 

Hunter, 30, 115; Canadian breeders of, 
121; description of, 119; heavy 
weight. Fig. of, 117; how trained, 
118; investment required, 115; 
number raised, 121; Ontario, Fig. 
of, 120; Peer. F. S., 115; sires, 116; 
thoroughbred, foundation of, 118; 
Virginia, breeders of, 121. 

Illustration, value of, 151. 
Imported horses, list of, 66. 



Importation, before 1776, 1; into Great 
Britain, 26; United States, 5; laws, 
64; of racing blood, 39. 
Improvement, due largely to food and 
environment, 231. 
infusion of better blood, 231. 
use, 231. 

of herd, how accomplished, 195. 
discussed, 227. 
Infantry-horses, 357. 
Influence, relative, of sire and dam, 200. 
Inheritance discussed, 185. 
Inspecting the hoi'se, 239. 

Job, tribute of, 69. 

Jockeying, 63. 

Joe Patchen, 80. 

Judging horses, 233. 

Julius Caesar, Welsh Pony, 132 

King James, 65. 

Large horses difficult to produce, 236. 

Light vehicles, 352. 

Lighting stables, 334. 

Line of draft, 348; Fig. of, 348. 

Live-stock registry. 381-387. 

Load, how attached, 351. 

Lord Stewart, Clydesdale, 140. 

Lou Dillon, 74; Fig. of, 72. 

Major Delmar, 74. 

Mangers, construction of, 345. 

Manures, care of, 340. 

waste of, 341. 
Martel, Charles, 156. 
Maud S., 74. 

Mental and muscular efficiency, 188. 
Morgan horse modified, 48. 
Moses, genealogy of , 56; illustrated, 57. 
Movement, Welsh pony, 131. 
Mules, in United States, 12. 

Nature's modes of action, 178. 
Neck, an all-embracing. Fig. of, 243. 

an undesirable. Fig. of, 242. 

of Goldsmith Maid, Fig. of, 241. 



INDEX 



399 



North America, horses indigenous to, 

Number and value of horses, Appendix 
IV.. 388-392. 

Oriental blood introduced, 158. 

breeds, 61. See, also, Ai-abian horse. 
Over-draw checks, 285. 

Pacers, 72; Narragansett, 37; as a 
driver, 84; breeding discussed, 82. 
compared with trotters, 84. 
discussed, 78. 
pure-gaited, 80. 
time of, 80. 
Pacing horses, 78. 
Paddocks and fields, 346. 
Palo Alto, 74. 

Parturition, approach and signs of, 219. 
Patterson, John, 141. 
Pedigrees, Alphea Czar, 55. 
Angus Ladd, 54. 
begun 1829, 67. 
how based, 50. 

knowledge of, stimulates, 59. 
reliance on, 60. 
short and long, 52, 54. 
Percheron horse, 31; mare. Fig. of, 163; 
Normans, 161; Stallion, Fig. of, 160; 
stallion. Fig. of, 164; stallion. Fig. 
of, 166; studbook, 161; weight of, 
166. 
Percherons changed, old to new, 158; 
color of, 165; conformation, 165; 
description of, 162; early impor- 
tations, 159. 
Photographing animals, 148. 
Plow, invention of, 13. 
Plymouth Rocks, how bred, 59. 
Pointer, Fig. of, 238. 
Ponies, 122; child's horse, 127; African, 
122; breeding, 136; Bressay, Fig. of, 
127; color of, 133; Corsica, 122; 
Creole, 135; Dartmoor family, 130; 
demand for, 125; Exmoors family, 
130; Exile, Fig. of, 12G; foundation 
stock, 138; gaited broncho, Fig. of, 
134; Fig. of, 123; Fig. of two, 124; 



Indian, 135; Julius Caesar, -Fig of, 
132; Mexican, 123; mustangs, 133; 
new forest family, 130; polo-pony 
breeding, 137; Shetlauds, 125; size 
of, 124, 128; subject to asthma, 128; 
Titor-Welch, Fig of, 129; useful, 
128 ; Welsh pony. Fig. of, 131; 
Welsh breeding. 130. 

Pony, 3; from Europe, 37; Indian 
mustang, 37. 

Potency and prepotency, 186. 

Prince Alert, 80; Fig. of, 81. 

Progress by selection, 194. 

Pullers, how cured, 285. 

Punishing the horse, 289. 

Quartette of Clydesdales, Fig. of, 142. 
Quilters, Sir W. Cuthbert, 154. 

Race-course, 1 ; established, 62. 

established, United States, 66. 
Race-hoi-ses kep' by statesmen, 66. 
Races, number of, 68. 
Racing, 72. 

forbidden by Cromwell, 27. 
Records of trotters, 73. 
Registration, how governed, 51. 
Registry of live-stock, 381-387. 
Rein, cruel use of, 286. 
Reisinger, Roe, 61. 
Richard II., 64. 
Roadster, 3. 
Roman conquest, 61. 

horse, 62. 
Rules for shoeing, 332. 

Saddler, American, 86, 87, 94; associa- 
tion, 89; at rest. Fig. 4, 45; at rest, 
Fig. of, 332; at World's Fair, 90; 
breeding, 88; color of, 90; cut of. 
Fig. 13, 92; description of, 90; for 
park riding, 91; foundation of, 87; 
gaits of, 89; Kentucky, 87; move- 
ment of feet, 93; Northern, 91; 
noted, 88; not popular in New 
York, 94; Roman, 86; running walk, 
83; size of, 90; Southern, 91; South 
United States, 86. 



400 



INDEX 



Salting horses, 311. 
amount of, 311. 

Star Pointer. 80. 

Saunders, J. H., 160. 

Selection, the part it plays, 193. 

Selling horses, 232. 

Sex, government of, 198. 
facts, cited, 199. 

Shetland, Exile of Pitsford, 126. 

Shire filley, Fig. of, 151. 

Short-horn, Herd-book, 51. 

Sire and dam, influence of, 197. 

Size and weight of horses, 313. 

Soiling colts, 218. 

Spanish horse, 27. 
horses, 62. 

Stables, arrangement. Fig. 88, 336; 
cool, 338; damp, 338; faulty con. 
struction, 338; lighting of, 334; 
plan of, Fig. 89, 337; too warm. 336, 
338; ventilation of, 333, 337; floors, 
how made, 342; walls, how made, 
339; walls, how repaired, 344. 

Stallion, selection of, 230. 

Stalls for brood-mares, 217. 

Stanford, Governor, 69. 

Statistics:— France, 7; Germany, 7; 
Great Britain, 6; Netherlands, 8: 
United States, 5, 6, 8. 

Stone, Prof. John L., 360. 

Straw, provision for. Fig. 89, 345. 

Stud-book, how formed, 50. 

Sub-breeds defined, 58. 

Success, Fig. of, 157. 

Suggestions for the beginner, 222, 

Suffolk Punch, color, 152; description 
of, 153; Fig. of, 152; foundation 
stock, 152; improved, 153; mare. 
Fig. of, 154. 

Sunol, 74. 

Tables of standard feeding rations, 
364-369. 

Teeth at advanced age. Fig. of, 263; 
cross-sections of. Fig. of, 260; dis- 
cussed, 246; horses' ages told by, 262; 
ten months old. Fig. of, 249; side 



view, very old horse. Fig. of, 264; 
temporary. Fig. of, 249; wear of, 
six ciits. Fig. of, 265; six weeks old. 
Fig. of, 248; two weeks old. Fig. of, 
247; eight years old. Fig. of, 259; 
eight years old, side view of, Fig. 
of, 261; four years old, Fig. of, 252; 
four years old, side view of. Fig. of, 
253; five years old. Fig. of, 254; five 
years old, side view of. Fig. of, 255; 
seven years old. Fig. of, 257; seven 
years old, side view of, Fig. of, 258; 
six years old. Fig. of, 256; six years 
old, side view of. Fig. of, 256; three 
years old, Fig. of, 251 ; two years 
old. Fig. of, 250. 
Thirty war-horses, 64. 
Thoroughbred, Tennessee and- Ken- 
tucky. 69. 
as drivers, 69. 
crossed with, 68. 
horse, 28, 30. 

importations into United States, 66. 
training, 16, 17. 
Tribe explained, 50. 
Tricks of the trade, 233. 
Traitor Shire stallion. Fig. of, 150. 
Trotter in England, 71. 
in Austria, 71. 
in France, 71. 
in Italy, 71. 
in Russia, 71. 
Trotters compared with pacers, 84. 
Trotting gait, natural, 70. 

horse, 70. 
Trotting records, 73. 

Unsightly ears, Fig. of, 240. 

head. Fig. of, 240. 
Use a factor in improvement, 192. 

Variations, cause of, 193. 
Ventilation, 333. 

Wagon, draft of, 350. 
low-wheeled, 350. 
wide-tired, 350. 



INDEX 



401 



Walters, William T., 156. 
War-horse, 22. 
Water, temperature of, 309. 
Watering horses, 290, 308. 

when hot, 309. 
Welsh Pony mare. Champion, 129. 
White Turk, 27. 



Wild horse, 4. 

William tlie Conqueror, 62. 

Work day, length of. 291. 

Xenophon, 22. 

Youatt. 67. 



,1,'i. 



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WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY 

HE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: 

A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested 
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BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell 

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FOURTH EDITION- 516 PACES — 22 ILLUSTRATIONS— 92.00 

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The Survival of the Unlike comprises thirty essays touching 
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HE EVOLUTION OF OUR NA< 

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472 PACES -126 ILLUSTRATIONS — 92.00 

In this entertaining volume, the origin and de- 
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The Evolution of our Native Fruits discusses The Rise of 
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Synopsis of the American Grapes) ; The Strange History of the Mul- 
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The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach Plum Groups, 
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ESSONS WITH PLANTS: Surges- 
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SECOND E0ITION~4ai PACES— 446 ILLUSTRATIONS— 1 2 MO— 
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FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS 

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